Additivo alimentare: E330 (EU 1333/2008) | Codex: 330 quantum satis
Klasyfikacja CLP (H-statements): H315 (Skin corrosion/irritation), H319 (Serious eye damage/eye irritation), H335 (Specific target organ toxicity, single exposure) (PubChem GHS)
6,99 €
czysty kwas cytrynowy do zastosowań kulinarnych i domowych, waga netto 1000g
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EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP), Villa RE, Azimonti G, Bonos E, Christensen H, Durjava M, Dusemund B, Gehring R, Glandorf B, Kouba M, López-Alonso M, Ma
York G; Kelly AW; Robison L; Iuzzolino L; Lee AY. 2025. "Revisiting the solid-state landscape of creatine citric acid: A salt or a cocrystal?." Journal of pharmaceutical sciences. https://doi.org/10.1
Fonti dei dati:
PubChem, NIST Chemistry WebBook, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (103rd ed.)
Ultimo aggiornamento: 2026-04-27
Stato normativo della sostanza
Questa sostanza è soggetta a requisiti normativi: gestione dei rifiuti pericolosi (BDO). Dettagli nella sezione "Stato normativo (REACH/ECHA/CLP)" e nella scheda SDS. Informazione normativa — non limita l'acquisto nel negozio.
📚 La bibliografia dei libri è in attesa di generazione. I manuali generali curati sono disponibili qui sotto; i libri di Google Books specifici per CAS possono essere scaricati dal pannello di amministrazione.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2024. "NIST Chemistry WebBook, SRD 69." Gaithersburg, MD: NIST. Accessed 2025-01-01. ↗
Spectral Database for Organic Structure Determination (SDBS). 2024. National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan. Accessed 2025-01-01. ↗
Ulrich, Eldon L., Hideo Akutsu, John F. Doreleijers, Yoko Harano, Yannis E. Ioannidis, Jundong Lin, Miron Livny, et al. 2008. "BioMagResBank." Nucleic Acids Research 36 (D1): D402–D408. [DOI ↗]
Horai, Hisayuki, Masanori Arita, Shigehiko Kanaya, Yoshito Nihei, Tasuku Ikeda, Kazuhiro Suwa, Yuya Ojima, et al. 2010. "MassBank: A Public Repository for Sharing Mass Spectral Data for Life Sciences." Journal of Mass Spectrometry 45 (7): 703–714. [DOI ↗]
Linstrom, P.J., and W.G. Mallard, eds. 2024. NIST Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. ↗
McDonald, M. Shane, Mike McAvoy, and Ajit Bhalerao. 1988. "JCAMP-DX: A Standard Form for Exchange of Infrared Spectra in Computer Readable Form." Applied Spectroscopy 42 (1): 151–162. [DOI ↗]
PubChem. 2024. "PubChem Compound Database." National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Accessed 2025-01-01. ↗
📊Banche dati di spettri spettroscopici — dati inline9 sourcesMolGod_SPECDB_2
Gli spettri vengono recuperati su richiesta da 9 fonti. Ogni spettro viene salvato nel nostro database — l'apertura successiva = zero richieste all'API esterna. Scarica JCAMP-DX / CSV / PNG per ogni spettro senza dover cercare.
Dati recuperati tramite MolGod_Spectra_Remote_Fetcher (parser JCAMP-DX) e salvati nella tabella wp_molgod_spectra_cache. Zero download duplicati, zero richieste a NIST alle aperture successive. Licenze rispettate (viene pubblicato solo il deep-link + la nostra visualizzazione).
Dati recuperati in tempo reale da più fonti (priority-chain). JCAMP-DX / CSV / PNG disponibili per il download sotto ogni spettro. ⓘ Fonte unica ★★☆☆☆ⓘ Fonte unica ★★☆☆☆
IR — infrarosso in trasformata di Fourier
Caricamento IR — infrarosso in trasformata di Fourier…
MS — spettrometria di massa (EI 70eV)
Caricamento MS — spettrometria di massa (EI 70eV)…
🧮 Confronto DFT vs esperimento (IR)
Sovrapposizione dello spettro sperimentale IR su quello calcolato teoricamente con il metodo B3LYP/6-31G* (fattore di scala 0.9614, Scott & Radom 1996).
Sperimentale DFT (teorico)
Dati teorici completi (geometria, frequenze): NIST CCCBDB ↗
📚 Bibliography (Chicago)
Becke, Axel D. 1993. "Density-Functional Thermochemistry. III. The Role of Exact Exchange." Journal of Chemical Physics 98 (7): 5648–5652. Definizione del funzionale B3LYP.
Scott, Anthony P., and Leo Radom. 1996. "Harmonic Vibrational Frequencies: An Evaluation of Hartree–Fock, Møller–Plesset, Quadratic Configuration Interaction, Density Functional Theory, and Semiempirical Scale Factors." Journal of Physical Chemistry 100 (41): 16502–16513. Fattori di scala per DFT (ad es. 0.9614 per B3LYP/6-31G*).
Merrick, Jeffrey P., Damian Moran, and Leo Radom. 2007. "An Evaluation of Harmonic Vibrational Frequency Scale Factors." Journal of Physical Chemistry A 111 (45): 11683–11700. Aggiornamento di Scott & Radom — fattori di scala per i funzionali DFT più recenti.
Lee, Chengteh, Weitao Yang, and Robert G. Parr. 1988. "Development of the Colle-Salvetti Correlation-Energy Formula into a Functional of the Electron Density." Physical Review B 37 (2): 785–789. Correlazione LYP — integra Becke 1993 per B3LYP.
Hehre, Warren J., Robert Ditchfield, and John A. Pople. 1972. "Self-Consistent Molecular Orbital Methods. XII. Further Extensions of Gaussian-Type Basis Sets." Journal of Chemical Physics 56 (5): 2257–2261. Definizione del set di base 6-31G* (split-valence + polarizzazione).
Johnson, Russell D., III, ed. 2022. "NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark Database (CCCBDB)." NIST Standard Reference Database 101, Release 22. https://cccbdb.nist.gov. Benchmark per i valori teorici — link di fallback nel widget.
Cramer, Christopher J. 2004. "Essentials of Computational Chemistry: Theories and Models." 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley. Manuale sui metodi DFT e sul calcolo delle frequenze vibrazionali.
Jensen, Frank. 2017. "Introduction to Computational Chemistry." 3rd ed. Chichester: Wiley. Modern computational chemistry — set di base + metodi per gli spettri vibrazionali.
Foresman, James B., and Æleen Frisch. 2015. "Exploring Chemistry with Electronic Structure Methods." 3rd ed. Wallingford, CT: Gaussian, Inc. Guida pratica a Gaussian — IR + Raman + NMR con DFT.
🎓 Guida all'interpretazione degli spettri (per studenti)
Wyjaśnienia każdego pasma w widmie — dlaczego pojawia się tam, gdzie się pojawia, i co świadczy o strukturze.
IR (infrarosso) (27 picchi)
Lo spettro IR (infrarosso) contiene 27 bande identificate. L'analisi seguente spiega che cosa significa ciascuna di esse dal punto di vista strutturale e perché compare in quel determinato intervallo.
O–H stretch (H-bonded, alcohol/acid)OH● high
La banda "O–H stretch (H-bonded, alcohol/acid)" compare nei casi: 3,297.0 cm⁻¹ (media (m)), 3,488.0 cm⁻¹ (media (m)). Indica la presenza di legami O–H (alcol/acido/acqua). La banda larga deriva dalla formazione di legami a idrogeno allo stato liquido/solido.
C=O stretch (ketone, aldehyde)C=O● high
La banda "C=O stretch (ketone, aldehyde)" compare nei casi: 1,719.0 cm⁻¹ (forte (s)). Banda carbonilica intensa — la posizione indica con precisione il tipo di gruppo: aldeide ~1720, chetone ~1715, estere ~1740, ammide ~1660.
O–H stretch (broad, COOH dimer)COOH● medium
La banda "O–H stretch (broad, COOH dimer)" compare nei casi: 2,562.0 cm⁻¹ (debole (w)), 2,635.0 cm⁻¹ (debole (w)), 2,756.0 cm⁻¹ (debole (w)). Un O–H molto largo (~2500–3300) + C=O (~1710) insieme costituiscono la classica firma di un acido carbossilico (dimero).
C–N stretch (amine), C–O stretch (alcohol/ether)CN/CO● medium
La banda "C–N stretch (amine), C–O stretch (alcohol/ether)" compare nei casi: 1,197.0 cm⁻¹ (media (m)), 1,216.0 cm⁻¹ (media (m)), 1,235.0 cm⁻¹ (media (m)). Il gruppo funzionale è identificato in base al suo intervallo caratteristico (Pavia/Silverstein) — il preciso meccanismo fisico dipende dai vicini chimici più prossimi.
C–O stretch (alcohol primary, ester)CO● medium
La banda "C–O stretch (alcohol primary, ester)" compare nei casi: 1,057.0 cm⁻¹ (debole (w)), 1,089.0 cm⁻¹ (debole (w)). Il gruppo funzionale è identificato in base al suo intervallo caratteristico (Pavia/Silverstein) — il preciso meccanismo fisico dipende dai vicini chimici più prossimi.
C–H bend (CH3 symmetric — gem-dimethyl)gem-CH3● medium
La banda "C–H bend (CH3 symmetric — gem-dimethyl)" compare nei casi: 1,391.0 cm⁻¹ (media (m)). Il gruppo funzionale è identificato in base al suo intervallo caratteristico (Pavia/Silverstein) — il preciso meccanismo fisico dipende dai vicini chimici più prossimi.
📚 Bibliography (Chicago)
Field, Leslie D., Sev Sternhell, and John R. Kalman. 2013. "Organic Structures from Spectra." 5th ed. Chichester: Wiley. Manuale di raccolta di esercizi per studenti (complemento alla guida di interpretazione).
Williams, Dudley H., and Ian Fleming. 2008. "Spectroscopic Methods in Organic Chemistry." 6th ed. London: McGraw-Hill. Un classico dell'interpretazione narrativa degli spettri — spiega "perché il picco è qui".
Crews, Phillip, Jaime Rodríguez, and Marcel Jaspars. 2009. "Organic Structure Analysis." 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Un flusso di lavoro per l'interpretazione strutturale multiparametrica.
McLafferty, Fred W., and František Tureček. 1993. "Interpretation of Mass Spectra." 4th ed. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. Meccanismi di frammentazione MS — riarrangiamento di McLafferty, m/z 29 = CHO.
Reusch, William. 2013. "Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry: Spectroscopy." East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University. https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/Spectrpy/spectro.htm. Una guida didattica aperta a IR/NMR/MS/UV — ideale per spiegare i gruppi funzionali.
Hesse, Manfred, Herbert Meier, and Bernd Zeeh. 2007. "Spektroskopische Methoden in der organischen Chemie." 8th ed. Stuttgart: Thieme. Il manuale tedesco standard di interpretazione degli spettri.
Lampman, Gary M., Donald L. Pavia, George S. Kriz, and James R. Vyvyan. 2010. "Spectroscopy." 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. Un eserciziario con narrazioni interpretative integrate.
Kalsi, P. S. 2010. "Spectroscopy of Organic Compounds." 6th ed. New Delhi: New Age International. Un manuale completo di interpretazione degli spettri IR/NMR/MS/UV.
🔎 Ricerca per spettro (JCAMP-DX)
Carica un file JCAMP-DX (.jdx, .dx, .jcm) — il sistema calcolerà la similarità del coseno rispetto a tutti gli spettri nel database e mostrerà le TOP 10 corrispondenze.
📚 Bibliography (Chicago)
McLafferty, Fred W., ed. 2018. Wiley Registry of Mass Spectral Data. 11th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Una libreria MS di riferimento (~775k spettri).
Stein, Stephen E., and Donald R. Scott. 1994. "Optimization and Testing of Mass Spectral Library Search Algorithms for Compound Identification." Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 5 (9): 859–866. L'algoritmo cosine + dot-product di NIST MS Search.
McDonald, Robert S., and Paul A. Wilks Jr. 1988. "JCAMP-DX: A Standard Form for Exchange of Infrared Spectra in Computer Readable Form." Applied Spectroscopy 42 (1): 151–162. La specifica JCAMP-DX (estesa alla 5.01 per NMR/MS).
McLafferty, Fred W., and František Tureček. 1993. "Interpretation of Mass Spectra." 4th ed. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. Matching per similarità coseno e frammentazione MS — la base dell'algoritmo di ricerca.
Sumner, Lloyd W., Alexander Amberg, Dave Barrett, Michael H. Beale, Richard Beger, Clare A. Daykin, Teresa W.-M. Fan, et al. 2007. "Proposed Minimum Reporting Standards for Chemical Analysis." Metabolomics 3 (3): 211–221. MSI Level 1-4 — standard del livello di confidenza della corrispondenza spettrale.
Stein, Stephen E. 1999. "An Integrated Method for Spectrum Extraction and Compound Identification from Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Data." Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry 10 (8): 770–781. L'algoritmo AMDIS — deconvoluzione + library match (NIST).
Lindon, John C., George E. Tranter, and David W. Koppenaal, eds. 2017. "Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry." 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Academic Press. Voci enciclopediche sullo spectral library searching.
Smith, Brian C. 2011. "Fundamentals of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy." 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. FT-IR e il formato JCAMP-DX per gli spettri di trasmissione.
Larkin, Peter. 2017. "Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy: Principles and Spectral Interpretation." 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Principi del library matching IR/Raman e del preprocessing dei picchi.
Haynes, William M., ed. 2024. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 105th ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-032-55554-4. ↗
National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2024. "NIST Chemistry WebBook, SRD 69." Gaithersburg, MD: NIST. Accessed 2025-01-01. ↗
Yaws, Carl L. 2014. The Yaws Handbook of Physical Properties for Hydrocarbons and Chemicals. 2nd ed. Oxford: Gulf Professional Publishing.
PubChem. 2024. "PubChem Compound Database." National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Accessed 2025-01-01. ↗
Marrero, J., and R. Gani. 2001. "Group-Contribution Based Estimation of Pure Component Properties." Fluid Phase Equilibria 183–184: 183–208. ↗
Joback, K. G., and R. C. Reid. 1987. "Estimation of Pure-Component Properties from Group-Contributions." Chemical Engineering Communications 57 (1–6): 233–243. ↗
Sangster, J. 1997. Octanol-Water Partition Coefficients: Fundamentals and Physical Chemistry. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-97397-3.
Mannhold, Raimund, and Han van de Waterbeemd. 2001. "Substructure and Whole Molecule Approaches for Calculating Log P." Journal of Computer-Aided Molecular Design 15 (4): 337–354. ↗
Perrin, Ditlev D., Boyd Dempsey, and E. P. Serjeant. 1981. pKa Prediction for Organic Acids and Bases. London: Chapman and Hall. ISBN 0-412-21090-5.
Constantinou, Leonidas, and Rafiqul Gani. 1994. "New Group Contribution Method for Estimating Properties of Pure Compounds." AIChE Journal 40 (10): 1697–1710. ↗
Ertl, Peter, Bernhard Rohde, and Paul Selzer. 2000. "Fast Calculation of Molecular Polar Surface Area as a Sum of Fragment-Based Contributions and Its Application to the Prediction of Drug Transport Properties." Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 43 (20): 3714–3717. ↗
🔄 Convertitore di unità di concentrazione LIVEMolGod_UNITCONV_1
Inserisci la concentrazione Citric Acid in qualsiasi unità — il resto verrà calcolato automaticamente.
Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
g/L ↔ molarity
c (mol/L) = (g/L) / MW
±0.1% (depends on MW precision)
Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
mmol/L ↔ molarity
c (mol/L) = mmol/L × 10⁻³
Exact
Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
Celsius ↔ Kelvin
T(K) = t(°C) + 273.15
±0.01 K (ITS-90 scale)
BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) (2019)
Celsius ↔ Fahrenheit
T(°F) = T(°C) × 9/5 + 32
±0.1 °F
Thompson A, Taylor BN (2008)
density-corrected % ↔ molarity
c (mol/L) = (%w/w × ρ × 10) / MW, ρ in g/mL
±0.1% when ρ known to 3 decimals
Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
📚 Bibliografia (8 fonti autorevoli)
Thompson A, Taylor BN (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). NIST Special Publication 811 · DOI: 10.6028/NIST.SP.811-2008 → Primary SI standard for US scientific usage
Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry — The IUPAC Green Book. RSC Publishing, 3rd ed. · DOI: 10.1039/9781847557889 · ISBN: 978-0-85404-433-7 → Canonical IUPAC guide for chemistry quantities/units
BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) (2019). The International System of Units (SI), 9th edition. BIPM · ↗ → International SI definitions (incl. redefined kilogram 2019)
ISO/IEC (2022). Quantities and units — Part 1: General. International Organization for Standardization — ISO 80000-1:2022 · ↗ → General rules for physical quantities and units
ISO/IEC (2019). Quantities and units — Part 9: Physical chemistry and molecular physics. International Organization for Standardization — ISO 80000-9:2019 · ↗ → Concentration / molality / amount-of-substance conventions
Tiesinga E, Mohr PJ, Newell DB, Taylor BN (2021). CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2018. Rev. Mod. Phys. 93(2):025010 · DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.93.025010 → Avogadro, gas constant, molar volume (2019 SI revision)
IUPAC (2019). Compendium of Chemical Terminology — the IUPAC Gold Book (online). IUPAC · DOI: 10.1351/goldbook → Definitions of mass fraction, molality, normality, ppm, activity
Mills IM, Cvitaš T, Homann K, Kallay N, Kuchitsu K (1988). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1st ed. · ISBN: 0-632-01773-5 → Historical predecessor of IUPAC Green Book
🧪 Procedura guidata di preparazione della soluzione WIZARDMolGod_PREP_1
Rumble, John R., ed. 2023. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 104th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam (IAPWS). 1997. "Release on the Static Dielectric Constant of Ordinary Water Substance." IAPWS R8-97. [link ↗]
Reichardt, Christian, and Thomas Welton. 2011. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527632220. [link ↗]
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420006834. [link ↗]
IFA. n.d. "Water." GESTIS Substance Database. Institut für Arbeitsschutz der Deutschen Gesetzlichen Unfallversicherung. Accessed April 25, 2026. [link ↗]
Rumble, John R., ed. 2023. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 104th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
Reichardt, Christian, and Thomas Welton. 2011. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527632220. [link ↗]
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183. [link ↗]
Smallwood, Ian M. 1996. Handbook of Organic Solvent Properties. London: Arnold. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-340-64578-9.X5000-9. [link ↗]
Reichardt, Christian, and Thomas Welton. 2011. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527632220. [link ↗]
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
Rumble, John R., ed. 2023. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 104th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
Smallwood, Ian M. 1996. Handbook of Organic Solvent Properties. London: Arnold. [link ↗]
National Institute of Standards and Technology. n.d. "Methane, dichloro- (CAS 75-09-2)." NIST Chemistry WebBook, SRD 69. Accessed April 25, 2026. [link ↗]
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1999. "Dichloromethane." IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans 71: 251–315. [link ↗]
Reichardt, Christian, and Thomas Welton. 2011. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. [link ↗]
Armarego, Wilfred L. F., and Christina Li Lin Chai. 2009. Purification of Laboratory Chemicals. 6th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-85617-567-8.50003-3. [link ↗]
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
National Institute of Standards and Technology. n.d. "Furan, tetrahydro- (CAS 109-99-9)." NIST Chemistry WebBook. Accessed April 25, 2026. [link ↗]
Smallwood, Ian M. 1996. Handbook of Organic Solvent Properties. London: Arnold. [link ↗]
National Institute of Standards and Technology. n.d. "Hexane (CAS 110-54-3)." NIST Chemistry WebBook. Accessed April 25, 2026. [link ↗]
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. [link ↗]
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 1999. Toxicological Profile for n-Hexane. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [link ↗]
International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1999. "Chloroform." IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans 73: 131–182. [link ↗]
National Institute of Standards and Technology. n.d. "Methane, trichloro- (CAS 67-66-3)." NIST Chemistry WebBook. Accessed April 25, 2026. [link ↗]
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [link ↗]
Reichardt, Christian, and Thomas Welton. 2011. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. [link ↗]
Teoria della solubilità (applicata nella previsione della compatibilità):
Yalkowsky, Samuel H., and Shri C. Valvani. 1980. "Solubility and Partitioning I: Solubility of Nonelectrolytes in Water." Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 69 (8): 912–922. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.2600690814 — General Solubility Equation (GSE): logS = 0.5 − logP − 0.01(MP−25).
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420006834 — Tripletta HSP (dD, dP, dH) + formula Ra.
Reichardt, Christian, and Thomas Welton. 2011. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527632220 — E_T(30) polarity scale, solwatochromia.
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 — Eluotropic series, polarity index.
PubChem Compound Database — CAS 77-92-9 lookup ↗ — logP (XLogP3), water solubility experimental + predicted.
Bibliografia completa nell'accordion RIFERIMENTI (in fondo alla pagina) — Chicago Manual of Style 17th ed., Author-Date.
🛡️ Sicurezza — CAS 77-92-9MolGod_SAFEHUB_MAIN
Avviso sulle limitazioni dei dati. Le informazioni sulla sicurezza contenute in questa pagina hanno carattere informativo e non sostituiscono la scheda di dati di sicurezza (SDS) completa. Prima di utilizzare il prodotto, consultare la scheda di dati di sicurezza aggiornata del produttore e le linee guida GHS/CLP. La classificazione CLP riguarda la sostanza pura bulk, non i preparati commerciali.
Classificazione GHS/CLP — Regolamento (CE) n. 1272/2008 + UN GHS Rev. 9 (2021).
⚠ Attenzione (Warning)
❗GHS07Irritante / nocivo
🚨 Indicazioni di pericolo (H)
H335 — Può irritare le vie respiratorie.
H319 — Provoca grave irritazione oculare.
🛡 Consigli di prudenza (P)
P261 — Evitare di respirare la polvere/i fumi/i gas/la nebbia/i vapori/gli aerosol.
P264 — Lavare accuratamente … dopo l’uso.
✓ Classificazione armonizzata ai sensi dell'allegato VI del regolamento CLP (CE) 1272/2008 (classificazione ufficiale, vincolante). Numero indice: 607-750-00-3.
Riferimento (Chicago): European Chemicals Agency. "citric acid, Index No. 607-750-00-3." In Table 3 of Annex VI to Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 (CLP Regulation), 23rd Adaptation to Technical Progress. Helsinki: European Chemicals Agency, 2026. https://echa.europa.eu/information-on-chemicals/annex-vi-to-clp.
Traduzioni: Regolamento CLP (CE) 1272/2008, Allegato III e IV. Dati: PubChem/NLM.
☢️ Dati tossicologici (IARC + EPA CTX)
📖 Sintesi tossicologica
Kwas cytrynowy (kwas 2-hydroksypropano-1,2,3-trikarboksylowy, CAS 77-92-9) jest naturalnie występującym kwasem organicznym o skrajnie niskiej toksyczności. LD50 doustnie u szczura wynosi 11 700 mg/kg masy ciała wg NIOSH NPG [1], potwierdzone przez dossier ECHA REACH [2]; cross-referencja [1,2]; substancja klasy 5 Hodge'a i Sternera ("praktycznie nieszkodliwa"). IARC nie zaklasyfikowała kwasu cytrynowego [3]; brak CMR w Aneksie VI CLP [2]. Kwas cytrynowy posiada status GRAS w USA (FDA 21 CFR 184.1033) i jest dopuszczony jako regulator kwasowości E330 w UE (Rozporządzenie WE 1333/2008); JECFA ustaliło ADI = "not specified" (NS) [4]. EFSA (przegląd 2018): kwas cytrynowy jako dodatek do żywności (E330) nie budzi obaw bezpieczeństwa przy obecnym użyciu — NOAEL > 2 000 mg/kg/dobę wg badań subchronicznych na gryzoniach; margines narażenia > 100 [5]. Jedyne klinicznie istotne działanie: lokalne drażnienie błon śluzowych przy wysokich stężeniach roztworów (> 30%) i erozja szkliwa zębów przy chronicznym kontakcie z napojami kwasowymi [6].
🔖 Citazioni delle fonti (6) — Chicago Notes-Bibliography
U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2007. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards: Citric Acid (CAS 77-92-9). DHHS (NIOSH) Pub. No. 2007-151. Rev. 2018. Atlanta: CDC/NIOSH. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/. [LD50 oral rat = 11 700 mg/kg.]
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 2025. "List of Classifications." Lyon: IARC/WHO. https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/. [CAS 77-92-9 nie sklasyfikowany.]
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). 2001. "Citric Acid." In WHO Food Additives Series No. 46. Geneva: WHO/FAO. [ADI = "not specified"; GRAS.]
EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF). 2020. "Re-evaluation of Citric Acid (E 330) as a Food Additive." EFSA Journal 18(6):6147. DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6147. [Peer-reviewed; open-access; NOAEL > 2 000 mg/kg/dobę; ADI NS potwierdzony.]
Lussi, Adrian, and Elmar Hellwig. 2006. "Risk Assessment and Causal Preventive Treatment of Dental Erosion." Caries Research 40(2):171–175. DOI: 10.1159/000091069. [Peer-reviewed; erozja szkliwa przy chronicznym kontakcie z kwasami.]
Formato: Chicago Notes-Bibliography (numbered). [n,m] = riferimento incrociato: entrambe le fonti confermano indipendentemente lo stesso valore. DOI-link = studi scientifici sottoposti a revisione paritaria. RESTRICTED = accesso tramite biblioteca scientifica.
Nessuna voce IARC individuale per questo CAS
Nessuna monografia IARC separata negli elenchi verificati — questo NON è una conferma dell'assenza di cancerogenicità. Verificare la classificazione CLP/GHS (sezione CMR / GHS).
🌍 Ecotoxicology & environmental fate (SDS sec. 8/12)
LC₅₀ (fish, 96 h):
440 mg/L (Leuciscus idus ssp. melanotus, 48 h)
EC₅₀ (Daphnia):
1535 mg/L (Daphnia magna, 24 h)
Source: ECHA REACH dossier / EU RAR — the same verified values as the Safety Data Sheet (SDS), sec. 8/12.
🔬 Limiti di esposizione professionale (PubChem × NIOSH/OSHA)
ℹ️ Notifiche GHS dei fornitori (autoclassificazione — non vincolanti)
I codici seguenti sono autoclassificazioni aggiuntive dei fornitori (autoclassificazione, notifiche ECHA C&L / PubChem) — a integrazione della classificazione armonizzata vincolante Annex VI sopra riportata; possono essere ridondanti.
Segnale di avvertenza più elevato segnalato: Warning
(secondo le segnalazioni dei notificanti, non vincolante)
La numerazione [n] corrisponde alle note in apice nel testo sopra riportato. [n,m] = riferimento incrociato: entrambe le fonti confermano indipendentemente lo stesso valore.
U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2007. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards: Citric Acid (CAS 77-92-9). DHHS (NIOSH) Pub. No. 2007-151. Rev. 2018. Atlanta: CDC/NIOSH. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/. [LD50 oral rat = 11 700 mg/kg.] 🔗
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 2025. "List of Classifications." Lyon: IARC/WHO. https://monographs.iarc.who.int/list-of-classifications/. [CAS 77-92-9 nie sklasyfikowany.] 🔗
Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). 2001. "Citric Acid." In WHO Food Additives Series No. 46. Geneva: WHO/FAO. [ADI = "not specified"; GRAS.]
EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF). 2020. "Re-evaluation of Citric Acid (E 330) as a Food Additive." EFSA Journal 18(6):6147. DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6147. [Peer-reviewed; open-access; NOAEL > 2 000 mg/kg/dobę; ADI NS potwierdzony.] [DOI]
Lussi, Adrian, and Elmar Hellwig. 2006. "Risk Assessment and Causal Preventive Treatment of Dental Erosion." Caries Research 40(2):171–175. DOI: 10.1159/000091069. [Peer-reviewed; erozja szkliwa przy chronicznym kontakcie z kwasami.] [DOI]
📖 Letteratura tossicologica generale (modulo)
Chen Y; Jin J; Xu X; Zhang H; Zhu L. 2026. "Effect of oil-soluble emulsifiers on the self-assembly behaviors of citric acid esters in bulk and emulsified systems." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117896. [DOI]
Atmaca YB; Kehr NS. 2026. "Synthesis of citric acid-coated nanomaterials releasing oxygen and antioxidant vitamin E and investigation of their effects on healthy and cancer cells under hypoxic and normoxic conditions." Biomedical materials (Bristol, England). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/ae5e12. [DOI]
Hategekimana F; Elçin AE; Elçin YM. 2026. "Green synthesis of caffeine-catalyzed citric acid-PPG/PEG crosslinked alginate hydrogel scaffolds for prospective biomedical applications." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151850. [DOI]
Ma CM; Liu WR; Xu Y; Zhang G; Xu XY; Wang B. 2026. "Preparation, characterization and toxicological evaluation of tapioca starch/chitosan/anhydrous citric acid composite edible films and their application in cooked rice." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151712. [DOI]
Hirano S; Oshima T; Inada A; Tsuruda T. 2026. "Dissolving Amyloid Fibrils with Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents: Citric Acid-Glycerol Achieves Superior Solubilization and Partial Protein Refolding." ACS applied bio materials. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.5c02553. [DOI]
EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP), Villa RE, Azimonti G, Bonos E, Christensen H, Durjava M, Dusemund B, Gehring R, Glandorf B, Kouba M, López-Alonso M, Marcon F, Nebbia C, Pechová A, Prieto-Maradona M, Theodoridou K, Yurkov A, Dulak-Lis M, Galobart J, Vettori MV, Villa AN, Pettenati E, Valeri P.. 2026. "Safety and efficacy of the feed additives consisting of citric acid anhydrous and citric acid monohydrate produced by fermentation with <i>Aspergillus niger</i>CGMCC 6.466 for all animal species (Sunshine Biotech International)." . https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2026.10031. [DOI]
York G; Kelly AW; Robison L; Iuzzolino L; Lee AY. 2025. "Revisiting the solid-state landscape of creatine citric acid: A salt or a cocrystal?." Journal of pharmaceutical sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2025.01.023. [DOI]
Ugarte-Pereyra C; Argyri SM; Bordes R; Vincent-Bonnieu S; Beaucé J; Binks BP. 2025. "Design of oleofoams from citric acid esters of mono-/diglycerides." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117119. [DOI]
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 2024. "IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans." Lyon: IARC. 🔗
U.S. EPA. 2024. "ECOTOX Knowledgebase." Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 🔗
ECHA. 2024. "Chemical Safety Assessment." European Chemicals Agency. 🔗
U.S. National Toxicology Program. 2024. Report on Carcinogens. 15th ed. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 🔗
GESTIS. 2024. "GESTIS Substance Database." Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (DGUV). 🔗
U.S. EPA. 2024. "CompTox Chemicals Dashboard." Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 🔗
ECHA. 2023. "Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures (CLP), Annex VI — Harmonised Classification." European Chemicals Agency. 🔗
🆘 Primo soccorso — procedure di emergenzaCAS 77-92-9
Attenzione / Warning
Classe di pericolo: Irritant
⚠️ IMPORTANTE:
In caso di incidente grave — chiamare il 112 o il Centro Antiveleni: +48 42 631 47 24 (Łódź).
🩹
Contatto con la pelle
✅ Cosa fare
Spłucz wodą
Mydło + woda jeśli długi kontakt
Krem nawilżający (kwas wysycha skórę)
wp_molgod_spill_procedures (legacy)
👁️
Contatto con gli occhi
✅ Cosa fare
Płucz 15 min wodą
Lekarz okulista jeśli podrażnienie utrzymuje się
wp_molgod_spill_procedures (legacy)
🫁
Inalazione / vie respiratorie
✅ Cosa fare
Świeże powietrze (pył drażniący błony śluzowe)
Wypłucz nos/gardło wodą
wp_molgod_spill_procedures (legacy)
🩺
Ingestione / via digestiva
✅ Cosa fare
Wypłucz usta wodą
Małe ilości (<10g) — bez konsekwencji (jest w cytrynach!)
🧰 Cassetta di primo soccorso — dotazione richiesta
Flacone lavaocchi (≥500 mL, ANSI Z358.1)
Soluzione salina 0.9% NaCl (sterile, ≥250 mL)
Bende sterili + cerotti ipoallergenici
Guanti di lattice per soccorso (taglia M/L/XL)
Maschera protettiva FFP2/FFP3
Termometro senza contatto
Crema idratante senza conservanti
Lavaggio nasale NaCl 0.9%
📚 Sources (Chicago Author-Date)
Goldfrank, Lewis R., Robert S. Hoffman, Mary Ann Howland, Neal A. Lewin, Lewis S. Nelson, and Silas W. Smith. 2019. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies. McGraw-Hill Education.
Olson, Kent R., Ilene B. Anderson, Neal L. Benowitz, Paul D. Blanc, Richard F. Clark, Thomas E. Kearney, Susan Y. Kim-Katz, and Alan H. B. Wu. 2018. Poisoning & Drug Overdose. McGraw-Hill.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2007. Antidotes for Poisoning by Cyanide (IPCS Evaluation Series 21). International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO Press. ↗
Howland, Mary Ann, and Robert S. Aaron. 2002. Goldfrank's Antidotes for Pediatric Emergency Care. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Centrum Zatruć Łódź. 2024. Procedury kliniczne w zatruciach ostrych — wytyczne dla ratowników. Centrum Informacji Toksykologicznej. ↗
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2007. Recommendations for First Aid Procedures for Chemical Exposures (NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, DHHS Publication No. 2005-149). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ↗
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). 2021. Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), Revision 9. United Nations. ↗
Brent, Jeffrey. 2009. Fomepizole for the Treatment of Pediatric Ethylene and Diethylene Glycol, Butoxyethanol, and Methanol Poisonings. Clinical Toxicology 48(5): 401–406.
European Society for Paediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). 2018. Caustic Ingestion in Children — Position Paper. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 66(5): 838–845.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2024. Toxicological Profiles — Medical Management Guidelines. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. ↗
IPCS INCHEM. 2024. International Programme on Chemical Safety — Poisons Information Monographs. WHO/UNEP/ILO. ↗
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 2014. ANSI Z358.1-2014 — Emergency Eyewash and Shower Equipment. International Safety Equipment Association.
🚨 Procedura di emergenza — sversamento di sostanze chimicheIrritant
CAS 77-92-9GHS:H319
🥽 PPE — Dispositivi di protezione individuale
Guanti:guanti in nitrile standard
Occhiali protettivi:Sì
Tuta:camice da laboratorio
📦 Piccolo sversamento (<1L) — assorbente: dry sweeping then water rinse
1. Zbierz na sucho miotłą/szufelką
2. Pozostałości zwilż wodą + wytrzyj
3. Zneutralizuj (jeśli >100g) sodą oczyszczoną — reaguje z fizz CO2
4. Wytrzyj do sucha
🛢️ Grande sversamento (>1L)
1. Zbierz mechanicznie do papierowych worków
2. Można utylizować jako odpad nieuciążliwy (organiczny biodegradowalny)
3. Roztwory >10% — neutralizuj NaHCO3, kontroluj pH 6-8
🩹 Primo soccorso
🧴 Pelle
1. Spłucz wodą
2. Mydło + woda jeśli długi kontakt
3. Krem nawilżający (kwas wysycha skórę)
👁️ Occhi
1. Płucz 15 min wodą
2. Lekarz okulista jeśli podrażnienie utrzymuje się
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 2024. 29 CFR 1910.120 — Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER). U.S. Code of Federal Regulations.
[link ↗]
National Fire Protection Association. 2018. NFPA 472: Standard for Competence of Responders to Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Incidents. NFPA.
[link ↗]
European Parliament and Council. 2012. Directive 2012/18/EU on the Control of Major-Accident Hazards Involving Dangerous Substances (Seveso III). Official Journal of the European Union L 197: 1–37.
[link ↗]
U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 2024. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
[link ↗]
European Chemicals Agency. 2020. Guidance on the Compilation of Safety Data Sheets (SDS), Version 3.1. ECHA.
[link ↗]
Fonti: ECHA · FDA GRAS · GESTIS.
Ultima verifica: 2026-04-27 09:00:00.
Dati indicativi — in situazione di emergenza applicare sempre le istruzioni del fornitore + le normative locali di sicurezza e salute sul lavoro.
⚠️ Guida visiva ai DPI (dispositivi di protezione individuale)Irritant
🧤 Guanti
Nitrile standard >0.1 mm EN 374-1 typ C
Protezione standard contro le irritazioni cutanee
👁️ Occhiali / occhiali a maschera
EN 166 D
Protezione contro particelle solide e goccioline; categoria di base
🥼 Camice / tuta
Camice da laboratorio standard in cotone EN 13688
Manica lunga standard abbottonata
💨 Ventilation
4 ACH(air changes/hour) Ventilazione generale di laboratorio
4 ACH minimo per operazioni aperte; cappa aspirante per polveri concentrate di CaCl2
📚 Riferimenti scientifici (Chicago Author-Date)
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2016. EN 374-1:2016 — Protective gloves against dangerous chemicals and micro-organisms — Part 1: Terminology and performance requirements for chemical risks. CEN, Brussels. EN 374-1:2016. [link ↗] — Classificazione dei guanti resistenti agli agenti chimici tipo A/B/C; test di permeazione JKLPT
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2001. EN 166:2001 — Personal eye-protection — Specifications. CEN, Brussels. EN 166:2001. [link ↗] — Marcature: B = energia d'impatto media, T = temp. estreme, 9 = metalli fusi e corpi solidi
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2009. EN 14605:2005+A1:2009 — Protective clothing against liquid chemicals — Performance requirements for clothing with liquid-tight (Type 3) or spray-tight (Type 4) connections. CEN, Brussels. EN 14605:2009. [link ↗] — Protezione Type 3 (jet-tight) e Type 4 (spray-tight) contro le sostanze chimiche liquide
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2017. Recommendations for Chemical Protective Clothing: A Companion to the NIOSH Pocket Guide. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services / CDC. [link ↗] — Guida pratica alla scelta del CPC per sostanza e scenario di esposizione
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 2011. Personal Protective Equipment — General requirements. U.S. Department of Labor — 29 CFR 1910.132. 29 CFR 1910.132. [link ↗] — Il datore di lavoro deve garantire DPI + formazione + valutazione dei rischi documentata per iscritto
🗄️ Matrice di compatibilità di stoccaggio (6×6)
Tossico
Mappa visiva di compatibilità delle classi di stoccaggio — verificare prima di collocare i contenitori l'uno accanto all'altro. Passare il cursore su una cella per visualizzare la spiegazione e la regola di origine (NFPA / OSHA / Bretherick / ECHA).
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2024. NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code. NFPA, Quincy, MA. NFPA 30 (2024 ed.). [link ↗] — §9.4–9.7 — class-based storage segregation rules (the canonical US lab/industrial reference)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 2023. 29 CFR 1910.106 — Flammable Liquids. U.S. Department of Labor, Federal Register. 29 CFR 1910.106. [link ↗] — (d)(5)(i)–(iv) — flammable storage cabinet, inside-storage room, and segregation requirements
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). 2024. Annex VI to Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 (CLP) — Harmonised Classification and Labelling. ECHA, Helsinki / Official Journal of the European Union. CLP Annex VI. [link ↗] — §2.4–2.5 — EU-level classification driving storage compatibility under REACH/CLP
♻️ Smaltimento dei rifiuti chimici (BDO)Irritant⚠️ BDO richiesto
📋 Codice EWC (Catalogo Europeo dei Rifiuti): 07 06 99Organici non pericolosi (acidi organici, alcoli diluiti)
Codice con asterisco (*) = rifiuto pericoloso che richiede la registrazione BDO + un protocollo di trasporto (Scheda di Trasferimento dei Rifiuti).
🌍Pericolo per l'ambiente:
NO
💧Rischio di contaminazione dell'acqua:
NO
🌱Rischio di contaminazione del suolo:
NO
🚫NON scaricare in fognatura:
NO
🚛HAZMAT transport (ADR):
NO
🏭 Aziende autorizzate allo smaltimento (BDO) — 8 di 8 in totale
📋 Elenco BDO completo:bdo.mos.gov.pl ↗
— registro ufficiale del Ministero del Clima e dell'Ambiente. Scheda di Trasferimento dei Rifiuti (KPO):modello BDO
obbligatorio per ogni consegna di rifiuti pericolosi.
📚 Riferimenti scientifici (Chicago Author-Date)
European Commission. 2014. Commission Decision 2014/955/EU on the list of waste pursuant to Directive 2008/98/EC. Official Journal of the European Union. Decyzja 2014/955/UE. [link ↗] — European List of Waste (LoW) — codici EWC a 6 cifre + asterisco per i rifiuti pericolosi
Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. 2020. Rozporządzenie Ministra Klimatu z dnia 2 stycznia 2020 r. w sprawie katalogu odpadów. Dziennik Ustaw RP 2020 poz. 10. [link ↗] — Catalogo polacco dei rifiuti — attuazione della Decisione 2014/955/UE
Główny Inspektorat Ochrony Środowiska (GIOŚ). 2024. Baza Danych O Odpadach (BDO) — System rejestracji firm utylizacyjnych. Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska. [link ↗] — Registro centrale BDO — elenco completo delle aziende autorizzate alla gestione dei rifiuti
Polska — Sejm RP. 2012. Ustawa z dnia 14 grudnia 2012 r. o odpadach. Dz.U. 2013 poz. 21 (z późn. zm.). [link ↗] — Legge nazionale — definisce gli obblighi del produttore di rifiuti + registrazione BDO
Furr, A. Keith, ed.. 2000. CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety. CRC Press. — Classificazione dei rifiuti di laboratorio + procedure di segregazione (capitolo Waste Management); norme EN 374:2013 sui guanti per il personale che manipola rifiuti pericolosi.
Pohanish, Richard P.. 2017. Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens. Elsevier. — Classificazione dei rifiuti per CAS + incompatibilità — input per la mappatura EWC.
Lewis, Richard J.. 2012. Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. Wiley. — Reattività + compatibilità di stoccaggio dei rifiuti (ossidanti vs infiammabili — flussi separati).
NIOSH. 2024. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [link ↗] — PEL/REL/IDLH per CAS — base per i DPI richiesti durante il trasporto dei rifiuti (KPO).
OSHA. 2024. Occupational Chemical Database — Hazardous Waste Operations (HAZWOPER). Occupational Safety and Health Administration. [link ↗] — 29 CFR 1910.120 — formazione + DPI per la gestione dei rifiuti pericolosi.
European Parliament and Council. 2008. Directive 2008/98/EC on waste (Waste Framework Directive). Official Journal of the European Union L 312/3. [link ↗] — Gerarchia della gestione dei rifiuti (prevenzione → recupero → smaltimento); definisce i "rifiuti pericolosi".
European Parliament and Council. 2009. Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 (CLP) on classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures. Official Journal of the European Union L 353. [link ↗] — Classificazione CLP delle indicazioni di pericolo H → mappatura verso EWC * (asterisco = pericoloso).
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). 2023. European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR 2025). UNECE. [link ↗] — ADR — requisiti per il trasporto di rifiuti pericolosi (KPO + numero UN + classi 1–9).
IPCS INCHEM. 2024. International Programme on Chemical Safety — Waste Management Guidelines. WHO/UNEP/ILO. [link ↗] — Linee guida internazionali di neutralizzazione + smaltimento per CAS.
European Parliament and Council. 2006. Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006 on Shipments of Waste. Official Journal of the European Union L 190: 1–98. [link ↗] — Trasferimento transfrontaliero di rifiuti pericolosi — requisiti di notifica + consenso prima dell'esportazione
📋 Conformità normativa (checklist di conformità)Irritant7 richiesto12 voci
ℹ️ Lista di controllo degli obblighi normativi per CAS 77-92-9.
Stato basato su: ADR 2023 (Tabella A), REACH Allegato XVII, CLP Allegato VI (classificazione armonizzata), hazard class da m14-spill DB, SVHC, GIS e NDS PL. Principio: assenza di dati = assenza di affermazione (NON dichiariamo 'assenza di restrizioni' senza base).
✅SDS (Scheda di Dati di Sicurezza) disponibilesoddisfatto
Come garantire la conformità: SODDISFATTO — scheda di dati di sicurezza v38 (PL) disponibile per il download in questa pagina.Requisito: SDS aggiornata conforme al Reg. 1907/2006 (REACH) allegato II, formato a 16 sezioni.
Base giuridica: Rozporządzenie (WE) 1907/2006 (REACH) Art. 31 + Aneks II
Come garantire la conformità: L'etichetta deve contenere: pittogrammi GHS, avvertenza (Pericolo/Attenzione), indicazioni di pericolo H e consigli di prudenza P, dati del produttore. Obbligatorio dal 2010 (sostanze) e dal 2015 (miscele). Per questa sostanza si applica la CLASSIFICAZIONE ARMONIZZATA (CLP all. VI) — vedi sotto; prevale sull'autoclassificazione.
Base giuridica: Rozporządzenie (WE) 1272/2008 (CLP) Art. 17-33 + Załącznik VI (klasyfikacja zharmonizowana)
Classificazione armonizzata (CLP All. VI): STOT SE 3, Eye Irrit. 2 — H335, H319 · Index 607-750-00-3
❌Formazione in materia di sicurezza chimica (substance-specific)richiesto
Come garantire la conformità: Personale di laboratorio: formazione iniziale (istruzione generale + specifica per la mansione) + aggiornamento periodico ogni 5 anni (o ogni 3 per il personale in posizioni tecnico-ingegneristiche). Documentazione conservata nel fascicolo personale.
Base giuridica: Rozp. MGiP Dz.U. 2004 nr 180 poz. 1860 (szkolenia BHP)
❌Registrazione BDO (banca dati polacca sui rifiuti)richiesto
Come garantire la conformità: La registrazione nel BDO è obbligatoria per i produttori di rifiuti pericolosi. Scheda di trasferimento dei rifiuti (KPO) per ogni consegna. Relazione annuale entro il 15 marzo dell'anno successivo.
Base giuridica: Ustawa z 14 grudnia 2012 r. o odpadach (Dz.U. 2013 poz. 21)
Come garantire la conformità: Nessun dato ADR nel set di dati MOL-GOD per questo numero CAS. NON presumere l'assenza di restrizioni — prima della spedizione verificare la classificazione ai fini del trasporto nell'ADR 2023 (Tabella A) e nella sezione 14 della scheda di dati di sicurezza (SDS).
Base giuridica: Umowa europejska ADR 2025 + Ustawa z 19 sierpnia 2011 r. o przewozie towarów niebezpiecznych
Come garantire la conformità: Gli importatori/produttori ≥1 tonnellata/anno devono registrare la sostanza presso l'ECHA (dossier tecnico + Chemical Safety Report se ≥10 t). Consultare ECHA Annex VI / registered substances list.
Base giuridica: Rozporządzenie (WE) 1907/2006 (REACH) Art. 5-22
Come garantire la conformità: Nie figuruje na liście kandydackiej SVHC REACH (art. 59) — stan listy ECHA: 2026-05-23. Lista kandydacka to NIE załącznik XIV.
Base giuridica: REACH Art. 7(2) + 33 — SVHC notification + communication
⚪REACH Allegato XVII (restrizioni all'uso/commercializzazione)non applicabile
Come garantire la conformità: Zweryfikowano wobec klasyfikacji zharmonizowanej (CLP Załącznik VI): substancja NIE ma klasyfikacji CMR kat. 1A/1B, więc NIE podlega ogólnemu zakazowi sprzedaży ogółowi społeczeństwa z poz. 28–30 Załącznika XVII. UWAGA: szczegółowe (nie-CMR) pozycje Załącznika XVII nie są objęte zbiorem MOL-GOD (zbiór niepełny) — przy wątpliwości sprawdź skonsolidowany Załącznik XVII na stronach ECHA.
Base giuridica: Rozporządzenie (WE) 1907/2006 (REACH) Załącznik XVII — ograniczenia produkcji/obrotu/stosowania
❓NDS — Concentrazione Massima Ammissibile nell'ambiente di lavoroda verificare
Come garantire la conformità: Dati NDS non presenti nell'insieme MOL-GOD (insieme incompleto — circa 41 su ~600 sostanze dell'elenco). L'assenza NON significa assenza di NDS — verifica l'elenco completo G.U. 2024 pos. 1017 (Reg. MRiPS del 4 settembre 2024), e in caso di assenza applica OEL dalle direttive UE o raccomandati da NIOSH/ACGIH.
Base giuridica: Rozp. MRiPS z 4 września 2024 r. (Dz.U. 2024 poz. 1017) — NDS i NDSCh
Come garantire la conformità: Non presente nell'insieme di lavoro disponibile dei precursori (elenco incompleto). L'assenza NON è conferma — verifica rispetto all'all. I Reg. (CE) 273/2004 e all'elenco GIS prima della commercializzazione.
Base giuridica: Rozp. (WE) 273/2004 + Ustawa o przeciwdziałaniu narkomanii (Dz.U. 2005 nr 179 poz. 1485)
✅Scheda di dati di sicurezza in lingua polaccasoddisfatto
Come garantire la conformità: SODDISFATTO — scheda in lingua polacca (v38) disponibile in questa pagina.Requisito: SDS in lingua polacca per la commercializzazione in PL (Art. 31 REACH + Legge sulle sostanze chimiche Art. 17).
Base giuridica: Ustawa z 25 lutego 2011 r. o substancjach chemicznych i ich mieszaninach (Dz.U. 2011 nr 63 poz. 322)
European Parliament and Council. 2008. Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 on classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP). Official Journal of the European Union L 353/1. CLP Regulation 1272/2008. [link ↗] — Classificazione, etichettatura e imballaggio delle sostanze + miscele (implementazione GHS nell'UE)
European Parliament and Council. 2006. Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). Official Journal of the European Union L 396/1. REACH Regulation 1907/2006. [link ↗] — REACH — registrazione, valutazione e autorizzazione delle sostanze chimiche; SVHC; SDS Allegato II
Ministerstwo Rodziny i Polityki Społecznej Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. 2024. Rozporządzenie Ministra Rodziny i Polityki Społecznej z dnia 4 września 2024 r. w sprawie najwyższych dopuszczalnych stężeń i natężeń czynników szkodliwych dla zdrowia w środowisku pracy. Dziennik Ustaw RP 2024 poz. 1017. [link ↗] — NDS e NDSCh per circa 600 sostanze chimiche — limiti polacchi attuali di esposizione professionale
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). 2023. European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), 2025 Edition. United Nations, Geneva. ADR 2025. [link ↗] — Accordo internazionale sul trasporto su strada di merci pericolose — numeri UN, classi, imballaggi
📚 Riferimenti scientifici consolidati — Chicago Author-Date 10 sources
Riferimenti raccolti da tutte le schede del Safety Hub. CAS: 77-92-9 ·
PubChem ↗
Parlament Europejski i Rada UE. 2008. "Rozporządzenie (WE) nr 1272/2008 w sprawie klasyfikacji, oznakowania i pakowania substancji (CLP)." Dz.Urz. UE L 353. [↗]
GHS, Normative
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). 2021. "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), Ninth Revised Edition." United Nations, Geneva. [↗]
GHS
Goldfrank, Lewis R., Robert S. Hoffman, Mary Ann Howland, et al.. 2019. "Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies, 11th ed.." McGraw-Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-1-25-985961-8.
Pierwsza pomoc, Toksykologia
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2023. "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (DHHS Publ. 2005-149)." U.S. Department of Health and Human Services / CDC, Cincinnati, OH. [↗]
Pierwsza pomoc, PPE, Toksykologia
European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2016. "EN 374-1:2016 — Protective gloves against dangerous chemicals and micro-organisms." CEN, Brussels. [↗]
PPE
UNECE. 2023. "European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR 2025)." United Nations, Geneva. [↗]
Utylizacja, Regulacje
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2022. "NFPA 400 — Hazardous Materials Code." NFPA, Quincy, MA. [↗]
Magazynowanie
Urben, P.G. (ed.). 2017. "Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, 8th ed.." Butterworth-Heinemann / Elsevier, Oxford. [↗]
Magazynowanie
Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska RP. 2023. "Baza danych o produktach i opakowaniach oraz o gospodarce odpadami (BDO)." Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska, Warszawa. [↗]
Utylizacja
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC / WHO). 2024. "IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans — List of Classifications." WHO, Lyon. [↗]
Toksykologia
Le schede con riferimenti propri (Emergency, PPE, Storage, Waste) contengono ulteriori voci bibliografiche all'interno delle rispettive sezioni.
Incolla una serie di misure replicate (CSV oppure un numero per riga). Il calcolatore calcolerà la media, la deviazione standard e il 95% CI, e rileverà gli outlier (Grubbs + Dixon Q).
Separatore: virgola, spazio, tab, nuova riga. Min 3 misurazioni.
📐 Formule statistiche
x̄ = Σxᵢ / n — media aritmetica
s² = Σ(xᵢ - x̄)² / (n-1) — varianza campionaria
s = √s² — deviazione standard
RSD% = (s / x̄) × 100% — deviazione standard relativa
ℹ️ Single-CAS Integrity: I seguenti solventi sono strumenti analitici (fase mobile HPLC) — NON sono la sostanza analizzata. I valori mostrati negli altri accordion (MW, GHS, tossicologia) si riferiscono alla molecola corrente, non a questi solventi. Eccezione: Single-CAS Integrity (categoria "solventi/tamponi/metodi analitici").
ℹ️ Single-CAS Integrity: I seguenti solventi sono strumenti analitici (fase mobile HPLC) — NON sono la sostanza analizzata. I valori mostrati negli altri accordion (MW, GHS, tossicologia) si riferiscono alla molecola corrente, non a questi solventi. Eccezione: Single-CAS Integrity (categoria "solventi/tamponi/metodi analitici").
ℹ️ Single-CAS Integrity: I seguenti solventi sono strumenti analitici (fase mobile HPLC) — NON sono la sostanza analizzata. I valori mostrati negli altri accordion (MW, GHS, tossicologia) si riferiscono alla molecola corrente, non a questi solventi. Eccezione: Single-CAS Integrity (categoria "solventi/tamponi/metodi analitici").
Phase
Solvente / CAS
Stato
Azione
A
Woda + 10mM bufor wodorowęglanu amonu CAS 7732-18-5
Putative Identification of 47 Compounds from Jieyu Anshen Granule and Proposal of Pharmacopeia Quality‐Assessment Strategy Using TCM‐Specific Library with UHPLC‐Q‐Exactive‐Orbitrap‐MS
Fase: mobile phase however consisted of mobile phase A (water, 0
Rivelazione: MS/MS
Flusso: 0.40 mL/min
Temp.: 40.0 °C
Gradient: elution procedure could be described as the following: 0
Li X, Zeng J, Cai R, Li C, Chen X, Chen B, et al. Putative Identification of 47 Compounds from Jieyu Anshen Granule and Proposal of Pharmacopeia Quality‐Assessment Strategy Using TCM‐Specific Library with UHPLC‐Q‐Exactive‐Orbitrap‐MS. ChemistryOpen. 2024;14:e202400046. doi:10.1002/open.202400046
Abstract
Jieyu Anshen Granule is a traditional Chinese medicine prescription used for depression and primarily comprises five herbal medicines: Zhizi, Chaihu, Zhigancao, Danggui, and Yuanzhi. This study established a traditional Chinese herbal medicine‐specific library using emerging ultra‐high‐performance liquid chromatography‐quadrupole‐orbitrap‐tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Through library comparison, the study has fulfilled isomers distinction. As a result, 47 compounds were simultaneously and putatively identified from Jieyu Anshen Granule, including 12 unexpected compounds and 35 expected compounds. The unexpected compounds comprised cyclocommunol, 5‐hydroxyflavone, tangeretin, 3,5,6,7,8,3’,4’‐heptemethoxyflavone, calycosin‐7‐O‐β‐D‐glucoside, 7,4’‐dihydroxyflavone, naringenin‐7‐O‐β‐D‐glucoside, matrine, betaine, jervine, alantolactone, and hypericin. Among the 35 expected compounds, saikosaponin A, saikosaponin D, glycyrrhizic acid, geniposide, ligustilide, and polygalaxanthone III were further investigated using a quantum chemistry approach. Based on these, an effective quality assessment strategy is proposed for the Pharmacopeia, involving the simultaneous analysis of glycyrrhizic acid, geniposide, ligustilide, polygalaxanthone III, saikosaponins A and D through ultra‐high‐performance liquid chromatography‐quadrupole‐orbitrap‐tandem mass spectrometry analysis. This strategy enables the detection of adulteration in relation to Zhizi, Chaihu, Zhigancao, Danggui, and Yuanzhi in Jieyu Anshen Granule. The findings of unexpected compounds will deepen the understanding of chemistry in Jieyu Anshen Granule.
Global metabolic profile and multiple phytometabolites in the different varieties of Gastrodia elata Blume
HPLCFrontiers in Plant Science202390% ✓CC-BYResearch method (specificity, robustness)
Colonna: C18, 1.9 μm
Fase: Mobile phase A and B were 0
Rivelazione: UV 220 nm
Flusso: 0.35 mL/min
Temp.: 80.0 °C
Inj.: 800 μL
Gradient: , 95% A (0 min–2 min), 95%–5% A (2 min–22…
Zeng X, Li J, Chen T, Li Y, Guo S. Global metabolic profile and multiple phytometabolites in the different varieties of Gastrodia elata Blume. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2023;14:1249456. doi:10.3389/fpls.2023.1249456
Gastrodia elata Blume (Tianma in Chinese), a myco-heterotrophic orchid, is widely distributed in China. Tubers derived from this orchid are traditionally used as both medicinal and edible materials. At present, five primary varieties of G. elata are recorded in the “Flora of China.” Among them, the three main varieties currently in artificial cultivation are G. elata f. elata (GR, red stem), G. elata f. glauca (GB, black stem), and G. elata f. viridis (GG, green stem). In our study, the metabolic profiles and chemical composition of these three varieties were determined via UPLC-MS/MS and HPLC-UV. In total, 11,132 metabolites were detected, from which multiple phytometabolites were identified as aromatic compounds, heteroatomic compounds, furans, carbohydrates, organic acids, and their derivatives. A number of differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) were annotated as bioactive ingredients. Overall, parishins, vanilloloside, and gastrodin A/B in the GB group were markedly higher, whereas gastrodin, gastrol, and syringic acid were more enriched in the GG or GR groups. Moreover, HPLC fingerprint analysis also found six metabolites used as markers for the identification of Gastrodiae Rhizoma in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, which were also typical DEMs in metabolomics. Of these, gastrodin, 4-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, citric acid, and adenosine were quantitatively detected, showing a similar result with the metabolomic data. In summary, our findings provide novel insights into the phytochemical ingredients of different G. elata varieties, highlighting diverse biological activities and healthcare value.
Fase: mobile phases in several isocratic modes with 5% concentration steps of the…
Rivelazione: UV 340 nm
Flusso: 0.40 mL/min
Temp.: 40.0 °C
Inj.: 5 μL
Gradient: grade, PanReac, Spain), and methanol (analytical grade, Kriokhrom, St
Zenkevich I, Derouiche A, Nikitina D. Evidence for the Hydration of Some Organic Compounds during Reverse-Phase HPLC Analysis. Molecules. 2023;28:734. doi:10.3390/molecules28020734
Some polar analytes (X) can reversibly form hydrates in water-containing eluents under the conditions of reversed-phase HPLC analysis, X + H2O ⇄ X × H2O. One of the methods to detect their formation is the recurrent approximation of the net retention times of such analytes, tR(C + ΔC) = atR(C) + b, where ΔC = const is the constant step in the variation of the organic modifier content of an eluent. These dependencies are linear if hydrates are not formed, but in the case of hydrate formation, they deviate from linearity under high water content. It has been shown that UV spectroscopic parameters, namely, relative optical densities: Arel = A(λ1)/A(λ2), depend on eluent composition for some organic compounds, but their variations cannot be used as indicators for hydrate formation. The coefficients that characterize the dependence of the analyte retention indices on the organic component concentration of an eluent, dRI/dC, appeared to be the most informative additional criterion for hydration. The values of these coefficients for most polar analytes are largely negative (dRI/dC < 0), whereas, for nonpolar compounds, they are largely positive (dRI/dC > 0).
reverse-phase HPLChydration of analytesrecurrent approximation of retention timesretention indicesdependence of indices on the concentration of an organic modifier in an eluent
📈 Validazione del metodo (ICH Q2)
Nessun dato di validazione. Contattare l'autore del metodo.
Nessuna interferenza — picco dell'analita completamente risolto (Rs ≥ 2.0)
—
Robustezza (robustness)
nessun dato
RSD < 2% con variazione del ±5%
RSD < 2% con piccole variazioni dei parametri
—
Legend:✓ PASS⚠ CAUTION✗ FAIL— NO_DATA
📚 Riferimenti scientifici (Chicago Author-Date) — fare clic per espandere
Standard di convalida dei metodi analitici — 4 fonti indipendenti (ICH + USP + AOAC + Snyder).
International Conference on Harmonisation (ICH). 2005. Validation of Analytical Procedures: Text and Methodology Q2(R1). ICH Expert Working Group. [link ↗] — Gold-standard ICH guideline — accepted by EMA, FDA, MHLW, NMPA
United States Pharmacopeia (USP) Convention. 2024. USP General Chapter <621> Chromatography. USP-NF 2024 ed. USP. [link ↗]
AOAC International. 2016. Appendix F: Guidelines for Standard Method Performance Requirements. AOAC INTERNATIONAL. [link ↗] — AOAC SMPR — alternative to ICH Q2 for food/dietary supplements
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-16754-0. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 [link ↗] — Industry standard textbook — Chapter 11 covers method validation
Snyder, L. R., J. J. Kirkland, and J. L. Glajch. 1997. Practical HPLC Method Development. 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-00703-6. — Classic method-development reference (DryLab heritage).
Rozet, Eric, et al.. 2013. Analysis of recent pharmaceutical regulatory documents on analytical method validation. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2007.03.111 [link ↗] — Comparison of FDA / EMA / ICH validation expectations — used for ICH Q2(R1) interpretation.
Heyden, Yvan Vander, et al.. 2009. Robustness of pharmaceutical liquid chromatographic methods. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.10.052 [link ↗] — Plackett-Burman design for robustness — basis of ICH Q2 §3.7.
Dong, Michael W.. 2019. HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists. 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-31378-3. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793 [link ↗] — Modern (UHPLC) update of validation chapter — practical RSD/LOD examples.
Meyer, Veronika R.. 2010. Practical High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. 5th ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-68218-0. — European pharmacopeial perspective — complements USP/AOAC.
Kazakevich, Yuri V., and Rosario LoBrutto, eds.. 2007. HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-68162-4. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470087954 [link ↗] — Pharma-focused validation case studies (specificity, robustness).
European Medicines Agency (EMA). 2011. Guideline on bioanalytical method validation EMEA/CHMP/EWP/192217/2009. EMA Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use. [link ↗] — EMA bioanalytical companion to ICH Q2(R1) for clinical samples.
🔧 Risoluzione dei problemi HPLC — albero decisionale6 problemi comuni
Diagnostica dei 12 problemi HPLC più comuni con albero decisionale (5 passaggi per problema). Fonte: Snyder/Kirkland/Dolan 3rd ed. Chapter 17 + LCGC LC Troubleshooting columns 1989-2024.
Picchi allargati (broad peaks) medium
Sintomo: Tutti i picchi nel cromatogramma sono più larghi del previsto (FWHM > 2× della norma)
🔍 Albero diagnostico:
1. Verifica se tutti i picchi sono allargati o solo alcuni → SÌ: Tutti → problema strumentale (colonna o sistema) → NO: Solo alcuni → problema chimico (interazione con la colonna per analiti specifici)
2. Sostituisci con una colonna di prova — il problema scompare? → SÌ: COLONNA usurata — packing danneggiato, void nei primi mm. Sostituiscila. → NO: Problema nel sistema LC
3. Controllare il volume morto (dead volume) — loop di iniezione, connessioni, rivelatore → SÌ: Loop > 100 µL per una colonna da 4.6 mm o connessioni allentate → sostituire le ferrule, accorciare i tubi → NO: Continua diagnostica
4. Test di temperatura: aumentare la colonna da 25°C a 40°C → SÌ: Picchi più stretti → cinetica di trasferimento di massa troppo lenta (aumentare T) → NO: Continue
5. Controllare il flow rate rispetto al valore ottimale di van Deemter per questa colonna → SÌ: Ottimale per 4.6mm/5µm = 1.0 mL/min, per 2.1mm/3µm = 0.4 mL/min → NO: Continue
⚠️ Cause comuni:
Colonna usurata (>2000 iniezioni senza guard)
Volume morto del sistema > 100 µL (loop errato, tubi lunghi, ferrule allentate)
Temperatura troppo bassa (cinetica di trasferimento di massa)
Flow rate al di fuori dell'ottimale di van Deemter
Solvente del campione più forte della fase A
✓ Soluzioni:
✓ Sostituire la colonna (quando >2000 iniezioni)
✓ Controllare tutte le connessioni — tubi il più corti possibile
✓ Aumentare la T della colonna a 40°C (se la sostanza è stabile)
✓ Ridurre il flow all'ottimale di van Deemter
✓ Sciogliere il campione nella fase A (non in organico puro)
Coda dei picchi (tailing, T > 1.5) high
Sintomo: I picchi presentano una "coda" prolungata sul lato di eluizione tardiva (asimmetria T = b/a > 1.5 secondo USP)
🔍 Albero diagnostico:
1. La sostanza contiene gruppi basici (ammino, piridina)? → SÌ: Sì → interazioni silanoliche! Aggiungere 0.1% TFA o 5-10 mM TEA alla fase A. → NO: Continue
2. Controllare il pH della fase mobile rispetto al pKa della sostanza → SÌ: pH = pKa ± 1 → ionizzazione parziale, peak split. Portare il pH a ≥ 2 unità di distanza dal pKa. → NO: Continue
3. Controllare l'età della colonna (>1500 iniezioni?) → SÌ: Sì → silanoli esposti (column bleed). Sostituire con una colonna con endcapping più elevato (XTerra, Symmetry). → NO: Continue
4. Il campione contiene metalli (Fe, Cu dalle fiale di vetro)? → SÌ: Sì → utilizzare fiale incolori di tipo II o PFA. EDTA 0.1mM nel campione. → NO: Continue
⚠️ Cause comuni:
Interazioni silanoliche (analita basico + silanoli liberi del gel di silice)
pH al limite del pKa dell'analita (peak split)
Colonna vecchia (column bleed, elevata attività silanolica)
Metalli nel campione (chelazione → tailing)
Sovraccarico della colonna (>50 µg su una colonna da 4.6mm)
✓ Soluzioni:
✓ Aggiungere 0.1% TFA (UV) o 0.1% acido formico (LC-MS) alla fase A
✓ Scegliere una colonna con endcapping ad alta purezza: Waters XBridge BEH, Phenomenex Kinetex
✓ Lavorare a pH ≥ 2 unità di distanza dal pKa
✓ EDTA 0.1mM nel campione (chelazione Fe/Cu)
✓ Ridurre il volume di iniezione a ≤ 20 µL per una colonna da 4.6mm
Deriva della linea di base (baseline drift) medium
Sintomo: La linea di base aumenta o diminuisce sistematicamente per >5 minuti
🔍 Albero diagnostico:
1. Si sta utilizzando un gradiente (B% in aumento)? → SÌ: Sì → assorbimento diverso delle fasi A e B a dλ. Cambio di solvente nell'UV-cutoff. Controllare l'assorbanza UV del % di organico. → NO: Continua (isocratico)
2. Controllare la temperatura della colonna — è stabile a ±0.5°C? → SÌ: Sì (stabile) → continua → NO: Instabile → attivare il termostato della colonna (>25°C controllato)
3. Test: spegnere l'autosampler, far funzionare solo pompa+colonna+rivelatore → SÌ: La deriva scompare → contaminazione dell'autosampler (pulire l'ago, il septum) → NO: Continue
4. Controllare l'età della lampada (D2 per UV) → SÌ: Sì (>1500 ore) → sostituire la lampada → NO: Continue
⚠️ Cause comuni:
Eluizione a gradiente con UV-cutoff diverso delle fasi
T della colonna instabile
Contaminazione dell'ago/septum dell'autosampler
Lampada UV vecchia (>1500h)
Cella di flusso del rivelatore sporca
Colonna non equilibrata (<10 volumi di colonna)
✓ Soluzioni:
✓ Pre-equilibrare la colonna per 10-15 volumi di colonna al 100% A
✓ Termostato colonna attivo, T 30-40°C stabile
✓ Pulire la flow cell del rivelatore con soluzione ACN:H2O 50:50
✓ Sostituire la lampada D2 se >1500h
✓ Usare la baseline subtraction (funzione nativa Chromeleon, Empower)
Nessun picco / picco perso (no peak) critical
Sintomo: Il picco atteso dell'analita non compare nel cromatogramma
🔍 Albero diagnostico:
1. L'iniezione è stata effettivamente eseguita? → SÌ: Controllare il log dell'autocampionatore, la pressione della pompa (dovrebbe calare durante l'iniezione) → NO: Problema dell'autocampionatore → controllare il loop, l'ago, il campione nella fiala
2. Il campione è nella fiala (volume corretto, non evaporato)? → SÌ: Continue → NO: Nessun campione — ri-pipettare
3. Stabilità del campione — preparato >24h fa? → SÌ: Sì → degradazione. Ri-preparare un campione fresco. → NO: Continue
4. Controllare la lunghezza d'onda di rilevazione rispetto al λmax della sostanza → SÌ: Rilevazione a λ NON corrisponde al λmax → nessun segnale. Scansione DAD 200-400nm. → NO: Continue
5. Test: iniettare uno standard puro (di concentrazione nota, fresco) → SÌ: Lo standard dà un picco → problema con il campione (matrice, derivatizzazione) → NO: Nessun picco anche con lo standard → problema di sistema (colonna, fase, gradiente)
⚠️ Cause comuni:
Campione non prelevato dalla fiala (bug dell'autocampionatore)
Campione degradato (>24h pH/temp/luce)
Rilevazione alla lunghezza d'onda errata
Fase mobile errata (es. TFA dimenticato)
Colonna invertita / fase stazionaria errata
La sostanza eluisce sul fronte (V0) → non trattenuta, non visibile
✓ Soluzioni:
✓ Ri-preparare un campione fresco secondo il protocollo esatto
✓ Scansione UV-Vis DAD 200-400nm + ricerca del λmax
✓ Controllare la composizione della fase mobile — TFA aggiunto?
✓ Testare la direzione inversa della colonna (con cautela!)
✓ Per ritenzione <1 min — abbassare il % B, MeOH al posto di ACN
✓ Controllare la tabella "expected_rt" in wp_molgod_hplc_methods
Pressione troppo alta (pressure too high) critical
Sintomo: Pressione della pompa > 80% del massimo della colonna o shutdown del sistema con errore high-pressure
🔍 Albero diagnostico:
1. Controllare che la colonna sia collegata correttamente (direzione della freccia) → SÌ: OK → NO: Colonna invertita → invertirla (non lavorare mai "al contrario")
2. Test: rimuovere la colonna dal sistema, far girare pompa+rivelatore da soli → SÌ: La pressione scende a <50 bar → problema nella colonna (intasata) → NO: La pressione rimane alta → filtro in-line intasato, frit sporco
3. Controllare il filtro pre-colonna (frit in-line) → SÌ: Sporco e brunastro → sostituire → NO: Continue
4. Retro-lavare la colonna con ACN:H2O 50:50 senza la colonna — scompare? → SÌ: Particelle bloccate nel primo mm — un flush di 30 min può recuperarla → NO: Sostituire la colonna
⚠️ Cause comuni:
Filtro in-line (frit) intasato da particelle
Salting-out del buffer (precipitazione ad alto %B)
Il campione contiene materiale in sospensione (filtrare a 0.22 µm prima dell'iniezione)
Colonna intasata (compattazione del letto della colonna)
Gradiente con fase buffer + molto organico → precipitazione del sale
✓ Soluzioni:
✓ Filtrare SEMPRE il campione con PVDF 0.22 µm prima dell'iniezione
✓ Sostituire il filtro in-line ogni 100 iniezioni (o quando la pressione aumenta >20%)
✓ NON usare buffer fosfato >20mM + >70% ACN (il sale precipita)
✓ Lavare la colonna per 30 min con ACN:H2O 50:50 in direzione inversa (quando il produttore lo consente)
✓ Pre-colonna 4×3mm per proteggere la colonna principale
Picchi fantasma (ghost peaks) high
Sintomo: Picchi inspiegabili sul cromatogramma assenti nella calibrazione
🔍 Albero diagnostico:
1. Test: iniezione in bianco (solvente puro del campione) → SÌ: Compare un ghost → contaminazione del sistema o degli eluenti → NO: Compare solo con il campione → matrice
2. Il ghost cresce con il gradiente (eluisce ad alta %B)? → SÌ: Sì → colonna sovraccarica o composti fortemente trattenuti dalla corsa precedente → NO: Indipendente dal gradiente → carryover dell'autocampionatore
3. Increase carryover wash (between injections) → SÌ: Aiuta → il carryover era la causa. Protocollo di lavaggio più forte. → NO: Continue
4. Iniezione di acqua pura — c'è un picco? → SÌ: Sì → contaminazione della fonte d'acqua (sostanze organiche dal sistema DI) → NO: Continue
⚠️ Cause comuni:
Carryover nell'ago/loop dell'autocampionatore
Contaminazione dell'eluente (anche di grado HPLC)
Componenti fortemente trattenuti da corse precedenti
Plastica nelle fiale (ftalati, PEG dai tappi)
Acqua DI insufficientemente purificata
✓ Soluzioni:
✓ Rafforzare il protocollo di lavaggio: 100% B → 100% A → 50:50 (3 cicli)
✓ Lavaggio forte: DMSO 100% o MeOH 100% prima della calibrazione
✓ Filtrare gli eluenti con PTFE 0.22 µm in caso di dubbio
✓ Usare vetro ambrato + tappi con rivestimento in Teflon per i campioni
✓ Rampa di gradiente periodica fino a 100% B per 10 min (clean-out)
📚 Riferimenti scientifici (Chicago Author-Date) — fare clic per espandere
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 17 (Troubleshooting) pp. 559-616. ISBN 978-0-470-16754-0. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 [link ↗]
Dolan, John W.. 2014. LC Troubleshooting (monthly column 1989-2024). LCGC North America. [link ↗] — John Dolan 35-letnia seria miesięcznych artykułów problemowych
Kromidas, Stavros. 2017. HPLC Made to Measure: A Practical Handbook for Optimization. 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-31377-1. — Praktyczny przewodnik problem-solving dla labs analitycznych
Dolan, John W.. 2013. When to Modify Method Conditions. 192-199. [link ↗] — Decision flow for changing flow rate / temperature / %B vs swapping columns.
Dong, Michael W.. 2019. HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists. 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-31378-3. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793 [link ↗] — Chapter 9 covers troubleshooting modern UHPLC systems (sub-2 µm particles).
Snyder, L. R., J. J. Kirkland, and J. L. Glajch. 1997. Practical HPLC Method Development. 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-00703-6. — Method-development companion volume with troubleshooting cross-refs.
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. The new physical chemistry of HPLC. 1764-1772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.094 [link ↗] — Theoretical basis for diagnosing efficiency losses (mass-transfer, eddy diffusion).
Heyden, Yvan Vander, et al.. 2009. Robustness of pharmaceutical liquid chromatographic methods. 2120-2129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.10.052 [link ↗] — How to diagnose method failures vs. system failures (Plackett-Burman).
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. 100 Years of Chromatography. 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-33473-5. — Historical context for ghost-peak phenomenology (silica chemistry).
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial. 519-531. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03506 [link ↗]
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. The new physical chemistry of HPLC. 1764-1772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.094 [link ↗]
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations. 1167-1182. https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200700026 [link ↗]
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. 100 Years of Chromatography. 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-33473-5.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography. 8525-8531. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac101742z [link ↗]
🧪 Solubilità e compatibilità con i solventi MolGod_SOLUB_1
Molecola
Citric Acid
Formula
C6H8O7
logP
-1.70
Massa (g/mol)
192.12
Polarità
Idrofila (polare)
⚠️ Stima HSP (letteratura / group contribution). Dati indicativi — non sostituiscono le prove sperimentali.
Teoria della solubilità (applicata nella previsione della compatibilità):
Yalkowsky, Samuel H., and Shri C. Valvani. 1980. "Solubility and Partitioning I: Solubility of Nonelectrolytes in Water." Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 69 (8): 912–922. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.2600690814 — General Solubility Equation (GSE): logS = 0.5 − logP − 0.01(MP−25).
Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook. 2nd ed. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420006834 — Tripletta HSP (dD, dP, dH) + formula Ra.
Stefanis, E., and C. Panayiotou. 2008. "Prediction of Hansen Solubility Parameters with a New Group-Contribution Method." Int J Thermophys 29: 568–585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10765-008-0415-z
Reichardt, Christian, and Thomas Welton. 2011. Solvents and Solvent Effects in Organic Chemistry. 4th ed. Wiley-VCH. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527632220 — E_T(30) polarity scale, solwatochromia.
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. 3rd ed. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 — Eluotropic series, polarity index.
Van Krevelen, D. W., and K. Te Nijenhuis. 2009. Properties of Polymers. 4th ed. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-054819-7.X0001-5 — Hoftyzer–Van Krevelen group contribution dla dD/dP/dH z SMILES.
Marcus, Yizhak. 1998. The Properties of Solvents. Wiley Series in Solution Chemistry, Vol. 4. ISBN 9780471983699 — Set tabulare completo di 250+ solventi (ε, μ, donicità, numeri di accettore).
PubChem Compound Database — CAS 77-92-9 lookup ↗ — logP (XLogP3), water solubility experimental + predicted.
Bibliografia completa nell'accordion RIFERIMENTI (in fondo alla pagina) — Chicago Manual of Style 17th ed., Author-Date.
🧮 Calcolatore di solubilità
Solubilità:—
logS:—
Metodo:—
⚠️ —
Solubilità vs Temperatura
🌐 Hansen Solubility Sphere (3D)
Quanto più vicino alla molecola (sfera rossa), tanto migliore è il solvente. · Avanzato: etichette + griglia + assi + pulsazione.
La tua molecola
Buono (Ra < 5)
Medio (Ra 5-10)
Scarso (Ra > 10)
📚 Fonti dei dati HSP + Ra
Chen Y; Jin J; Xu X; Zhang H; Zhu L. 2026. "Effect of oil-soluble emulsifiers on the self-assembly behaviors of citric acid esters in bulk and emulsified systems." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117896. [DOI ↗]
Atmaca YB; Kehr NS. 2026. "Synthesis of citric acid-coated nanomaterials releasing oxygen and antioxidant vitamin E and investigation of their effects on healthy and cancer cells under hypoxic and normoxic conditions." Biomedical materials (Bristol, England). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/ae5e12. [DOI ↗]
Hategekimana F; Elçin AE; Elçin YM. 2026. "Green synthesis of caffeine-catalyzed citric acid-PPG/PEG crosslinked alginate hydrogel scaffolds for prospective biomedical applications." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151850. [DOI ↗]
Ma CM; Liu WR; Xu Y; Zhang G; Xu XY; Wang B. 2026. "Preparation, characterization and toxicological evaluation of tapioca starch/chitosan/anhydrous citric acid composite edible films and their application in cooked rice." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151712. [DOI ↗]
Hirano S; Oshima T; Inada A; Tsuruda T. 2026. "Dissolving Amyloid Fibrils with Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents: Citric Acid-Glycerol Achieves Superior Solubilization and Partial Protein Refolding." ACS applied bio materials. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.5c02553. [DOI ↗]
EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP), Villa RE, Azimonti G, Bonos E, Christensen H, Durjava M, Dusemund B, Gehring R, Glandorf B, Kouba M, López-Alonso M, Marcon F, Nebbia C, Pechová A, Prieto-Maradona M, Theodoridou K, Yurkov A, Dulak-Lis M, Galobart J, Vettori MV, Villa AN, Pettenati E, Valeri P.. 2026. "Safety and efficacy of the feed additives consisting of citric acid anhydrous and citric acid monohydrate produced by fermentation with <i>Aspergillus niger</i>CGMCC 6.466 for all animal species (Sunshine Biotech International)." . https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2026.10031. [DOI ↗]
York G; Kelly AW; Robison L; Iuzzolino L; Lee AY. 2025. "Revisiting the solid-state landscape of creatine citric acid: A salt or a cocrystal?." Journal of pharmaceutical sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2025.01.023. [DOI ↗]
Ugarte-Pereyra C; Argyri SM; Bordes R; Vincent-Bonnieu S; Beaucé J; Binks BP. 2025. "Design of oleofoams from citric acid esters of mono-/diglycerides." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117119. [DOI ↗]
Metodo: Group Contribution (GC) — stima rapida di δD/δP/δH da logP in assenza di dati sperimentali. Accuratezza ±2 MPa^½. Per maggiore precisione → software HSPiP.
📊 Argomenti estratti automaticamente dagli abstract di 2 pubblicazioni per CAS 77-92-9.
Algoritmo: TF-IDF (Salton & Buckley 1988) — frequenza del termine × frequenza inversa del documento.
Inne nazwy: kwasek cytrynowy, kwas 2-hydroksypropanotrójkarboksylowy
Zastosowania
Regulator kwasowości w przetworach domowych (dżemy, kompoty)
Środek zakwaszający do napojów i deserów
Usuwanie kamienia z czajników i ekspresów
Konserwant żywności (E330)
Domowy peeling enzymatyczny do twarzy
Specyfikacja
Waga netto: 1000g, przechowywać w suchym miejscu w szczelnie zamkniętym opakowaniu. Rozpuszczalny w wodzie (27g/100ml w 25°C).
Najczęściej zadawane pytania
Jak używać kwasu cytrynowego do odkamieniania czajnika?
Rozpuść 2-3 łyżki proszku w 500ml wody, zagotuj mieszaninę w czajniku, pozostaw na 15 minut, dokładnie wypłucz. Unikaj stosowania do aluminium.
Czy kwas cytrynowy jest bezpieczny dla dzieci?
Tak, w małych ilościach (jako E330) jest dopuszczony do żywności. Nie stosować czystego proszku doustnie – może podrażniać błony śluzowe.
Czy wiesz, że kwas cytrynowy naturalnie występuje w cytrusach?
Jak odróżnić kwas cytrynowy spożywczy od technicznego?
Spożywczy ma czystość min. 99,7% i certyfikat HACCP, techniczny może zawierać zanieczyszczenia. Sprawdź oznaczenie na opakowaniu.
Źródła i literatura
PubChem — National Library of Medicine: Właściwości fizykochemiczne kwasu cytrynowego (CID [CAS?]). pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Rozporządzenie UE 1333/2008: Dopuszczenie E330 jako dodatku do żywności.
Karta charakterystyki produktu: Zawiera informacje o bezpiecznym stosowaniu i przechowywaniu.
⚠ UWAGA — ODCZYNNIK CHEMICZNY
Kwas cytrynowy (C6H8O7) powszechnie znana jako kwasek cytrynowy, kwas cytrynowy to odczynnik chemiczny przeznaczony wyłącznie do zastosowań laboratoryjnych, badawczych i profesjonalnych. Numer CAS: 77-92-9 Numer WE (EC): 201-069-1 Nazwa IUPAC:kwas 2-hydroksypropano-1,2,3-trikarboksylowy Nazwa łacińska (Farmakopea):Acidum citricum
NIE NADAJE SIĘ DO SPOŻYCIA przez ludzi ani zwierzęta. Produkt nie jest lekiem, suplementem diety, kosmetykiem ani środkiem spożywczym. Jakiekolwiek inne zastosowanie niż laboratoryjne lub przemysłowe jest niezgodne z przeznaczeniem produktu.
Wymagane środki ochrony osobistej: rękawice ochronne, okulary lub gogle, fartuch laboratoryjny, praca w dobrze wentylowanym pomieszczeniu lub pod wyciągiem chemicznym.
Przed użyciem zapoznaj się z kartą charakterystyki substancji (SDS/MSDS) zgodnie z rozporządzeniem REACH (WE) 1907/2006 oraz CLP (WE) 1272/2008. Sprzedaż wyłącznie do celów technicznych.
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Gradiente basato su PubChem XLogP3 + LSS (Snyder et al. 2010, cap. 9).
Colonna: C18
Tampone: phosphate
Flusso: 1 mL/min
logP:
-1.7(PubChem XLogP3)
Ramp: 5% → 95% B, 10 min
Tempo totale di analisi: 23 min
t (min)
%A
%B
flow (mL/min)
Commento
0
95
5
1
avvio (equilibrio)
2
95
5
1
fine mantenimento iniziale
12
5
95
1
fine rampa LSS
17
5
95
1
lavaggio della colonna
18
95
5
1
ritorno a init
23
95
5
1
riequilibrazione
📚 Riferimenti scientifici (Chicago Author-Date)
Snyder, Lloyd R., John W. Dolan, and Joseph J. Kirkland. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. Wiley. — Chapter 9 — gradient elution, LSS theory (cited as Snyder et al. 2010 in tool description).
Schoenmakers, Peter J. 1986. Optimization of Chromatographic Selectivity: A Guide to Method Development. Elsevier. — Numerical optimization of gradient programs.
Snyder, L. R., and J. W. Dolan. 2007. High-Performance Gradient Elution: The Practical Application of the Linear-Solvent-Strength Model. Wiley. — Foundational LSS reference for the %B_init = 5 + 8·logP heuristic implemented here.
Nikitas, Pavlos, and Adrian Pappa-Louisi. 2009. "Retention models for isocratic and gradient elution in reversed-phase liquid chromatography." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1737-1755. [DOI ↗] — Modern review of gradient retention models — basis for non-LSS extensions.
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1764-1772. [DOI ↗]
Dong, Michael W. 2019. HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793. — Modern UHPLC gradient programming, sub-2 µm scaling rules.
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations." Journal of Separation Science 30: 1167-1182. [DOI ↗]
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. "Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial." Analytical Chemistry 89: 519-531. [DOI ↗] — Reference for orthogonal gradient design (2D-LC second dimension).
Dolan, John W.. 2013. "When to Modify Method Conditions." LCGC North America 31: 192-199.
Meyer, Veronika R. 2010. Practical High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. Wiley. — Chapter 7 — practical gradient design with isokratyczny scouting.
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. "Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial." Analytical Chemistry 89: 519-531. [DOI ↗]
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1764-1772. [DOI ↗]
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations." Journal of Separation Science 30: 1167-1182. [DOI ↗]
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. 100 Years of Chromatography. Wiley-VCH.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531. [DOI ↗]
REST: /wp-json/molgod/v1/hplc/gradient/77-92-9
🌈 Rivelatore + lunghezza d'onda (UV/Vis)184 nm
Composto
1,2,3-Propanetricarboxylic acid, 2-hydroxy-
λmax
184 nm
λmin
—
εmax (M⁻¹·cm⁻¹)
—
Solvente (riferimento)
gas phase or unknown (NIST WebBook)
λ suggerita
184 nm
Rivelatore raccomandato
ELSD
Alternatives
RID, MS, CAD
Fonte dei dati: NIST WebBook UVVis JCAMP — peak picked from spectrum
⚠ Compatibilità con la fase mobile
critical
λ=184 nm < UV cutoff Water (HPLC-grade) (190 nm) — il solvente assorbe, misura impossibile.
critical
λ=184 nm < UV cutoff 0.1% TFA in water (210 nm) — il solvente assorbe, misura impossibile.
critical
λ=184 nm < UV cutoff 20 mM phosphate pH 7 (200 nm) — il solvente assorbe, misura impossibile.
advisory
Il lavoro sotto i 220 nm richiede: solventi HPLC-grade, degasaggio della fase mobile, un tampone pulito (evitare TFA/acetato) e una lampada al deuterio in buone condizioni.
Skoog, Douglas A., F. James Holler, and Stanley R. Crouch. 2017. "Principles of Instrumental Analysis." 7th ed. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-57721-3.
Perkampus, Heinz-Helmut. 1992. "UV-VIS Spectroscopy and Its Applications." Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-77479-9. →
Sadek, Paul C.. 2002. "The HPLC Solvent Guide." 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-41138-4.
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." 3rd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-16754-0. →
Dong, Michael W.. 2019. "HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists." 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-31378-3. →
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. "Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial." Analytical Chemistry 89: 519-531 →
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531 →
Kazakevich, Yuri V., and Rosario LoBrutto, eds.. 2007. "HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists." Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-68162-4. →
Kim, Sunghwan, et al.. 2023. "PubChem 2023 update." Nucleic Acids Research 51: D1373-D1380 →
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. "Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial." Analytical Chemistry 89: 519-531 →
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1764-1772 →
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations." Journal of Separation Science 30: 1167-1182 →
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. "100 Years of Chromatography." 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-33473-5.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531 →
REST: /wp-json/molgod/v1/hplc/detector/77-92-9
📐 Calcolatore della simmetria del picco HPLC (USP Tf / As)
Calcola il fattore di tailing USP (T) e l'asimmetria (As) dalle semilarghezze del picco. Inserisci a (semilarghezza sinistra) e b (semilarghezza destra) misurate al 5% o 10% dell'altezza del picco.
📚 Riferimenti (Chicago Author-Date)
USP General Chapter <621>. 2024. "Chromatography." United States Pharmacopeial Convention. [link ↗] — Defines USP Tailing Factor T = (a+b)/(2a) measured at 5% peak height.
International Council for Harmonisation (ICH). 2023. "Validation of Analytical Procedures Q2(R2)." ICH Expert Working Group. [link ↗] — Tailing factor is a system suitability parameter (Section 6).
Foley, Joe P., and John G. Dorsey. 1983. "Equations for calculation of chromatographic figures of merit for ideal and skewed peaks." Analytical Chemistry 55: 730-737 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00255a033 [link ↗] — Original asymmetry factor As = b/a at 10% height (Foley & Dorsey 1983).
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 [link ↗] — Chapter 2.4 — peak shape diagnostics and remedies.
Dolan, John W.. 2003. "Peak tailing and resolution." LCGC North America 21: 610-614 [link ↗] — How tailing factor degrades effective resolution.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac101742z [link ↗] — Modern numerical deconvolution for asymmetric peaks.
Kromidas, Stavros. 2017. "HPLC Made to Measure: A Practical Handbook for Optimization." Wiley-VCH. — Practical Tf and As thresholds for routine QC.
Dong, Michael W.. 2019. "HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists." Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793 [link ↗]
Heyden, Yvan Vander, et al.. 2009. "Robustness of pharmaceutical liquid chromatographic methods." Journal of Chromatography B 877: 2120-2129 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.10.052 [link ↗]
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. "Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial." Analytical Chemistry 89: 519-531 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03506 [link ↗]
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1764-1772 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.094 [link ↗]
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations." Journal of Separation Science 30: 1167-1182 https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200700026 [link ↗]
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. "100 Years of Chromatography." Wiley-VCH.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac101742z [link ↗]
📊 Calcolatore di risoluzione e numero di piatti (Rs, N, H)
Calcola la risoluzione Rs, il numero di piatti teorici N e l'HETP (H) per una coppia di picchi HPLC. Inserisci i tempi di ritenzione, le larghezze dei picchi (al 50% o alla base) e la lunghezza della colonna.
📚 Riferimenti (Chicago Author-Date)
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-16754-0. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 [link ↗] — Chapter 2 covers resolution, plate count and HETP fundamentals (Snyder et al. 2010).
USP General Chapter <621>. 2024. "Chromatography." USP-NF 2024 ed. United States Pharmacopeial Convention. [link ↗] — Defines Rs >= 1.5 acceptance criterion and N calculation methods.
Dolan, John W.. 2003. "How much resolution is enough?." LCGC North America 21: 350-353 [link ↗] — Practical guidance on Rs targets for routine method development.
Van Deemter, J. J., F. J. Zuiderweg, and A. Klinkenberg. 1956. "Longitudinal diffusion and resistance to mass transfer as causes of nonideality in chromatography." Chemical Engineering Science 5: 271-289 https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(56)80003-1 [link ↗] — Origin of N = 5.54·(tr/w0.5)² half-height plate count formulation.
Giddings, J. Calvin. 1965. "Dynamics of Chromatography, Part I: Principles and Theory." Marcel Dekker. ISBN 978-0-8247-1357-7. — Resolution equation Rs = (1/4)·√N·(α-1)/α·k/(1+k) (master equation).
Foley, Joe P., and John G. Dorsey. 1983. "Equations for calculation of chromatographic figures of merit for ideal and skewed peaks." Analytical Chemistry 55: 730-737 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00255a033 [link ↗] — Skewed-peak corrections to apparent N.
Knox, John H.. 1977. "Practical aspects of LC theory." Journal of Chromatographic Science 15: 352-364 https://doi.org/10.1093/chromsci/15.9.352 [link ↗]
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1764-1772 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.094 [link ↗]
Dong, Michael W.. 2019. "HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists." 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-31378-3. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793 [link ↗]
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. "Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial." Analytical Chemistry 89: 519-531 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03506 [link ↗]
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1764-1772 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.094 [link ↗]
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations." Journal of Separation Science 30: 1167-1182 https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200700026 [link ↗]
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. "100 Years of Chromatography." 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-33473-5.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac101742z [link ↗]
🧪 System Suitability — calcolatore live (USP <621>)
Inserisci i dati di 5-6 iniezioni (areas, tr, tailing, plates) — il calcolatore calcolerà %RSD, le medie e verificherà la conformità con USP <621>. Puoi incollare un CSV (separato da virgole) o modificare i singoli valori.
📚 Riferimenti (Chicago Author-Date)
USP General Chapter <621>. 2024. "Chromatography (System Suitability section)." USP-NF 2024 ed. United States Pharmacopeial Convention. [link ↗] — Defines RSD area < 2%, tailing < 2.0, N > 2000 acceptance criteria.
International Council for Harmonisation (ICH). 2023. "Validation of Analytical Procedures Q2(R2)." ICH Expert Working Group. [link ↗] — Section 5.4 — system suitability is part of method validation.
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2018. "Reviewer Guidance: Validation of Chromatographic Methods." US Food and Drug Administration. [link ↗] — CDER reviewer perspective on chromatographic validation expectations.
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." 3rd ed. Wiley. — Chapter 2 — system suitability fundamentals (RSD, Tf, N).
Heyden, Yvan Vander, et al.. 2009. "Robustness of pharmaceutical liquid chromatographic methods." — Robustness vs. system suitability — design-of-experiments framework.
Rozet, Eric, et al.. 2013. "Analysis of recent pharmaceutical regulatory documents on analytical method validation."
European Medicines Agency (EMA). 2011. "Guideline on bioanalytical method validation EMEA/CHMP/EWP/192217/2009." EMA. [link ↗] — EMA companion guideline with bioanalytical SS criteria.
Dong, Michael W.. 2019. "HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists." 2nd ed. Wiley. — UHPLC-specific suitability adjustments (n=5 vs. n=6).
Kazakevich, Yuri V., and Rosario LoBrutto, eds.. 2007. "HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists." Wiley-Interscience.
AOAC International. 2016. "Appendix F: Guidelines for Standard Method Performance Requirements." AOAC INTERNATIONAL. [link ↗] — Alternative SS thresholds for food/dietary samples.
Stoll, Dwight R., and Peter W. Carr. 2017. "Two-Dimensional Liquid Chromatography: A State of the Art Tutorial."
Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC."
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations."
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. "100 Years of Chromatography." 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography."
⚗️ Jonizacja w funkcji pH (Henderson-Hasselbalch)MolGod_PHION_1
Typ: Kwas · pKa: 3.13 · pKa2: 4.76
pH
% jonowy
% niejonowy
0
0.1 %
99.9 %
2
6.9 %
93.1 %
4
88.1 %
11.9 %
6
99.9 %
0.1 %
8
100.0 %
0.0 %
10
100.0 %
0.0 %
12
100.0 %
0.0 %
14
100.0 %
0.0 %
Źródła dla tej substancji (9)
CRC Handbook 91st ed. Lide, David R., ed. 2010. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 91st ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
CRC Handbook 105th ed. Haynes, William M., David R. Lide, and Thomas J. Bruno, eds. 2024. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 105th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
NIST WebBook — link Linstrom, Peter J., and William G. Mallard, eds. 2024. NIST Chemistry WebBook. NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
PubChem CID 311 — link Kim, Sunghwan, Jie Chen, Tiejun Cheng, Asta Gindulyte, Jia He, Siqian He, Qingliang Li, et al. 2023. "PubChem 2023 update." Nucleic Acids Research 51 (D1): D1373-D1380. PubChem CID 311.
DrugBank DB04272 — link Knox, Craig, Mike Wilson, Christen M. Klinger, Mark Franklin, Eponine Oler, Alex Wilson, Allison Pon, et al. 2024. "DrugBank 6.0: the DrugBank Knowledgebase for 2024." Nucleic Acids Research 52 (D1): D1265-D1275. DrugBank ID DB04272.
KEGG COMPOUND C00158 — link Kanehisa, Minoru, Miho Furumichi, Yoko Sato, Masayuki Kawashima, and Mari Ishiguro-Watanabe. 2023. "KEGG for taxonomy-based analysis of pathways and genomes." Nucleic Acids Research 51 (D1): D587-D592.
IUPAC Serjeant, E. P., and Boyd Dempsey. 1979. Ionisation Constants of Organic Acids in Aqueous Solution. IUPAC Chemical Data Series No. 23. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
NIST Goldberg, Robert N., Nand Kishore, and Rebecca Lennen. 2002. "Thermodynamic Quantities for the Ionization Reactions of Buffers." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 31 (2): 231-370.
Bibliografia metody (Chicago)
Henderson, L. J. 1908. "Concerning the Relationship between the Strength of Acids and Their Capacity to Preserve Neutrality." American Journal of Physiology 21 (4): 173-179.
Hasselbalch, K. A. 1917. "Die Berechnung der Wasserstoffzahl des Blutes aus der freien und gebundenen Kohlensäure desselben." Biochemische Zeitschrift 78: 112-144.
Po, Henry N., and N. M. Senozan. 2001. "The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation: Its History and Limitations." Journal of Chemical Education 78 (11): 1499-1503.
Avdeef, Alex. 2012. "Absorption and Drug Development: Solubility, Permeability, and Charge State." 2nd ed. Wiley.
Avdeef, Alex. 2007. "Solubility of sparingly-soluble ionizable drugs." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 59 (7): 568-590.
Volgyi, Gergely, et al. 2007. "Potentiometric and spectrophotometric pKa determination of water-insoluble compounds." Analytica Chimica Acta 583 (2): 418-428.
Fini, Adamo, Giuseppe Fazio, and Giuseppina Feroci. 1997. "Solubility and solubilization properties of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs." Pharmaceutica Acta Helvetiae 70 (4): 305-318.
Mauger, John W., Anthony N. Paruta, and Robert J. Gerraughty. 1972. "Solubilities of sulfadiazine, sulfisomidine, and sulfadimethoxine." Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 61 (1): 94-97.
Lyman, Warren J., William F. Reehl, and David H. Rosenblatt. 1990. "Handbook of Chemical Property Estimation Methods." American Chemical Society.
Marcus, Yizhak. 1998. "The Properties of Solvents." Wiley.
Serjeant, E. P., and Boyd Dempsey. 1979. Ionisation Constants of Organic Acids in Aqueous Solution. IUPAC Chemical Data Series No. 23. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Perrin, Douglas D. 1965. Dissociation Constants of Organic Bases in Aqueous Solution. IUPAC. London: Butterworths.
Goldberg, Robert N., Nand Kishore, and Rebecca Lennen. 2002. "Thermodynamic Quantities for the Ionization Reactions of Buffers." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 31 (2): 231-370.
Haynes, William M., David R. Lide, and Thomas J. Bruno, eds. 2024. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 105th ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Lide, David R., ed. 2010. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 91st ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Kim, Sunghwan, Jie Chen, Tiejun Cheng, Asta Gindulyte, Jia He, Siqian He, Qingliang Li, et al. 2023. "PubChem 2023 update." Nucleic Acids Research 51 (D1): D1373-D1380.
Knox, Craig, Mike Wilson, Christen M. Klinger, Mark Franklin, Eponine Oler, Alex Wilson, Allison Pon, et al. 2024. "DrugBank 6.0: the DrugBank Knowledgebase for 2024." Nucleic Acids Research 52 (D1): D1265-D1275.
Zdrazil, Barbara, Eloy Felix, Fiona Hunter, Emma J. Manners, James Blackshaw, Sybilla Corbett, Marleen de Veij, et al. 2024. "The ChEMBL Database in 2023." Nucleic Acids Research 52 (D1): D1180-D1192.
Kanehisa, Minoru, Miho Furumichi, Yoko Sato, Masayuki Kawashima, and Mari Ishiguro-Watanabe. 2023. "KEGG for taxonomy-based analysis of pathways and genomes." Nucleic Acids Research 51 (D1): D587-D592.
Linstrom, Peter J., and William G. Mallard, eds. 2024. NIST Chemistry WebBook. NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Nelson, David L., and Michael M. Cox. 2017. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 7th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman.
📈 Predittore dello spettro UV-VIS (200-400 nm)λmax 184 nmMolGod_UVVIS_1
Composto
1,2,3-Propanetricarboxylic acid, 2-hydroxy-
λmax
184 nm
λmin
—
εmax (M⁻¹·cm⁻¹)
—
Solvente (query)
water
Solvente (riferimento)
gas phase or unknown (NIST WebBook)
Concentration (M)
1e-4
Lunghezza del cammino ottico (cm)
1
FWHM della curva
30 nm
Modello: curva gaussiana centrata su λmax con scalatura secondo Beer-Lambert A = ε · c · l. Trasmittanza T = 10^(-A) · 100%.
📚 Riferimenti scientifici (Chicago Author-Date)
Chen Y; Jin J; Xu X; Zhang H; Zhu L. 2026. "Effect of oil-soluble emulsifiers on the self-assembly behaviors of citric acid esters in bulk and emulsified systems." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117896. [DOI]
Atmaca YB; Kehr NS. 2026. "Synthesis of citric acid-coated nanomaterials releasing oxygen and antioxidant vitamin E and investigation of their effects on healthy and cancer cells under hypoxic and normoxic conditions." Biomedical materials (Bristol, England). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/ae5e12. [DOI]
Hategekimana F; Elçin AE; Elçin YM. 2026. "Green synthesis of caffeine-catalyzed citric acid-PPG/PEG crosslinked alginate hydrogel scaffolds for prospective biomedical applications." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151850. [DOI]
Ma CM; Liu WR; Xu Y; Zhang G; Xu XY; Wang B. 2026. "Preparation, characterization and toxicological evaluation of tapioca starch/chitosan/anhydrous citric acid composite edible films and their application in cooked rice." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151712. [DOI]
Hirano S; Oshima T; Inada A; Tsuruda T. 2026. "Dissolving Amyloid Fibrils with Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents: Citric Acid-Glycerol Achieves Superior Solubilization and Partial Protein Refolding." ACS applied bio materials. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.5c02553. [DOI]
EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP), Villa RE, Azimonti G, Bonos E, Christensen H, Durjava M, Dusemund B, Gehring R, Glandorf B, Kouba M, López-Alonso M, Marcon F, Nebbia C, Pechová A, Prieto-Maradona M, Theodoridou K, Yurkov A, Dulak-Lis M, Galobart J, Vettori MV, Villa AN, Pettenati E, Valeri P.. 2026. "Safety and efficacy of the feed additives consisting of citric acid anhydrous and citric acid monohydrate produced by fermentation with <i>Aspergillus niger</i>CGMCC 6.466 for all animal species (Sunshine Biotech International)." . https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2026.10031. [DOI]
York G; Kelly AW; Robison L; Iuzzolino L; Lee AY. 2025. "Revisiting the solid-state landscape of creatine citric acid: A salt or a cocrystal?." Journal of pharmaceutical sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2025.01.023. [DOI]
Ugarte-Pereyra C; Argyri SM; Bordes R; Vincent-Bonnieu S; Beaucé J; Binks BP. 2025. "Design of oleofoams from citric acid esters of mono-/diglycerides." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117119. [DOI]
Linstrom, Peter J., and William G. Mallard, eds. 2023. NIST Chemistry WebBook, NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. [DOI]
Mayerhöfer, Thomas G., Samir Pahlow, and Jürgen Popp. 2020. "The Bouguer-Beer-Lambert Law: Shining Light on the Obscure." ChemPhysChem 21 (18): 2029-2046. [DOI]
Skoog, Douglas A., F. James Holler, and Stanley R. Crouch. 2017. Principles of Instrumental Analysis. 7th ed. Boston: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-57721-3.
Lindon, John C., George E. Tranter, and David W. Koppenaal, eds. 2017. "Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry." 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-803224-4.
Field, Leslie D., Sev Sternhell, and John R. Kalman. 2013. "Organic Structures from Spectra." 5th ed. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-96582-6.
Reusch, William. 2013. "Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry: Spectroscopy." East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.
Lampman, Gary M., Donald L. Pavia, George S. Kriz, and James R. Vyvyan. 2010. "Spectroscopy." 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-88992-9.
Kalsi, P. S. 2010. "Spectroscopy of Organic Compounds." 6th ed. New Delhi: New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-2032-9.
Williams, Dudley H., and Ian Fleming. 2008. "Spectroscopic Methods in Organic Chemistry." 6th ed. London: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-711559-0.
Sadek, Paul C. 2002. The HPLC Solvent Guide. 2nd ed. Hoboken: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-41242-2.
Banwell, Colin N., and Elaine M. McCash. 1994. "Fundamentals of Molecular Spectroscopy." 4th ed. London: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-707976-1.
Perkampus, Heinz-Helmut. 1992. UV-VIS Spectroscopy and Its Applications. Berlin: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-77479-9.
Fieser, Louis F. 1949. "Extension of Woodward's Rules for Prediction of Conjugated Diene Absorption." Journal of the American Chemical Society 71 (5): 1854-1857. [DOI]
Woodward, Robert B. 1942. "Structure and the Absorption Spectra of Alpha,Beta-Unsaturated Ketones." Journal of the American Chemical Society 64 (1): 72-75. [DOI]
Beer, August. 1852. "Bestimmung der Absorption des rothen Lichts in farbigen Flüssigkeiten." Annalen der Physik und Chemie 86: 78-88. https://doi.org/10.1002/andp.18521620505.
Lambert, Johann Heinrich. 1760. Photometria. Augsburg: Sumptibus Vidae.
📖 Wartość λmax = 184 nm pochodzi z bazy/literatury. Brak niezależnego potwierdzenia krzyżowego (NIST / CrossRef / PubChem) — weryfikacja krzyżowa niedostępna.
Fonte: RTECS GE7350000; Lipnick et al. 1995, Food Chem. Toxicol. (1995). CAS 77-92-9.
I dati LD50/LC50 hanno valore puramente indicativo; non sostituiscono la scheda di dati di sicurezza (SDS) né la valutazione di un esperto tossicologo. Classificazione GHS per la via orale (mg/kg bw) secondo UN GHS, 10ª rev. 2023, Annex 1 §3.1.1.
Bibliography (Chicago)
Hodge, Harold C., and James H. Sterner. 1949. "Tabulation of toxicity classes." American Industrial Hygiene Association Quarterly 10 (4): 93-96.
U.S. EPA. 2024. "ChemView." https://chemview.epa.gov/.
United Nations. 2023. "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)." 10th rev. ed. New York: UN.
Lipnick, Robert L., et al. 1995. "Comparison of the up-and-down, conventional LD50, and fixed-dose acute toxicity procedures." Food and Chemical Toxicology 33 (3): 223-231.
ATSDR. 2024. "Toxicological Profiles." Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/.
Hayes, Wallace, and Claire L. Kruger, eds. 2014. "Hayes' Principles and Methods of Toxicology." 6th ed. CRC Press.
Lewis, Richard J. 2012. "Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials." 12th ed. Wiley.
IARC. 2024. "Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans." International Agency for Research on Cancer (per kryteria klasyfikacji rakotwórczości IARC Group 1/2A/2B).
Pohanish, Richard P. 2017. "Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens." 7th ed. Elsevier.
Bingham, Eula, Barbara Cohrssen, and Charles H. Powell, eds. 2012. "Patty's Toxicology." 6th ed. Wiley.
WHO. 2023. "Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard." World Health Organization (zgodne z UN GHS Annex 1 §3.1.1).
💎 Forme cristalline / Polimorfi2 formy w bazieMolGod_POLYMORPH_2
PUBChen Y; Jin J; Xu X; Zhang H; Zhu L. 2026. "Effect of oil-soluble emulsifiers on the self-assembly behaviors of citric acid esters in bulk and emulsified systems." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117896.
PUBYork G; Kelly AW; Robison L; Iuzzolino L; Lee AY. 2025. "Revisiting the solid-state landscape of creatine citric acid: A salt or a cocrystal?." Journal of pharmaceutical sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2025.01.023.
PUBUgarte-Pereyra C; Argyri SM; Bordes R; Vincent-Bonnieu S; Beaucé J; Binks BP. 2025. "Design of oleofoams from citric acid esters of mono-/diglycerides." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117119.
📚 Riferimenti scientifici (Chicago Author-Date)
Chen Y; Jin J; Xu X; Zhang H; Zhu L. 2026. "Effect of oil-soluble emulsifiers on the self-assembly behaviors of citric acid esters in bulk and emulsified systems." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117896. [DOI]
Atmaca YB; Kehr NS. 2026. "Synthesis of citric acid-coated nanomaterials releasing oxygen and antioxidant vitamin E and investigation of their effects on healthy and cancer cells under hypoxic and normoxic conditions." Biomedical materials (Bristol, England). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605X/ae5e12. [DOI]
Hategekimana F; Elçin AE; Elçin YM. 2026. "Green synthesis of caffeine-catalyzed citric acid-PPG/PEG crosslinked alginate hydrogel scaffolds for prospective biomedical applications." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151850. [DOI]
Ma CM; Liu WR; Xu Y; Zhang G; Xu XY; Wang B. 2026. "Preparation, characterization and toxicological evaluation of tapioca starch/chitosan/anhydrous citric acid composite edible films and their application in cooked rice." International journal of biological macromolecules. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2026.151712. [DOI]
Hirano S; Oshima T; Inada A; Tsuruda T. 2026. "Dissolving Amyloid Fibrils with Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents: Citric Acid-Glycerol Achieves Superior Solubilization and Partial Protein Refolding." ACS applied bio materials. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.5c02553. [DOI]
EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP), Villa RE, Azimonti G, Bonos E, Christensen H, Durjava M, Dusemund B, Gehring R, Glandorf B, Kouba M, López-Alonso M, Marcon F, Nebbia C, Pechová A, Prieto-Maradona M, Theodoridou K, Yurkov A, Dulak-Lis M, Galobart J, Vettori MV, Villa AN, Pettenati E, Valeri P.. 2026. "Safety and efficacy of the feed additives consisting of citric acid anhydrous and citric acid monohydrate produced by fermentation with <i>Aspergillus niger</i>CGMCC 6.466 for all animal species (Sunshine Biotech International)." . https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2026.10031. [DOI]
York G; Kelly AW; Robison L; Iuzzolino L; Lee AY. 2025. "Revisiting the solid-state landscape of creatine citric acid: A salt or a cocrystal?." Journal of pharmaceutical sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xphs.2025.01.023. [DOI]
Ugarte-Pereyra C; Argyri SM; Bordes R; Vincent-Bonnieu S; Beaucé J; Binks BP. 2025. "Design of oleofoams from citric acid esters of mono-/diglycerides." Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.117119. [DOI]
Newman, David J., and Gordon M. Cragg. 2020. "Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs over the Nearly Four Decades from 01/1981 to 09/2019." Journal of Natural Products 83 (3): 770-803.
Macrae, Clare F., Ioana Sovago, Simon J. Cottrell, et al. 2020. "Mercury 4.0: from visualization to analysis, design and prediction." Journal of Applied Crystallography 53 (1): 226-235. https://doi.org/10.1107/S1600576719014092.
International Conference on Harmonisation. 2017. "ICH Q6A: Specifications: Test Procedures and Acceptance Criteria for New Drug Substances and New Drug Products." Geneva: ICH. https://www.ich.org/page/quality-guidelines.
Groom, Colin R., Ian J. Bruno, Matthew P. Lightfoot, and Suzanna C. Ward. 2016. "The Cambridge Structural Database." Acta Crystallographica Section B: Structural Science, Crystal Engineering and Materials 72 (2): 171-179.
Davies, Mark, Michał Nowotka, George Papadatos, et al. 2015. "ChEMBL Web Services: Streamlining Access to Drug Discovery Data and Utilities." Nucleic Acids Research 43 (W1): W612-W620.
Price, Sarah L. 2014. "Predicting crystal structures of organic compounds." Chemical Society Reviews 43 (7): 2098-2111. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60279F.
Hann, Michael M. 2011. "Molecular Obesity, Potency and Other Addictions in Drug Discovery." MedChemComm 2 (5): 349-355.
Yu, Lian. 2010. "Polymorphism in molecular solids: an extraordinary system of red, orange, and yellow crystals." Accounts of Chemical Research 43 (9): 1257-1266. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar100040r.
Spek, Anthony L. 2009. "Structure validation in chemical crystallography." Acta Crystallographica D 65 (2): 148-155. https://doi.org/10.1107/S090744490804362X.
Sheldrick, George M. 2008. "A short history of SHELX." Acta Crystallographica A 64 (1): 112-122. https://doi.org/10.1107/S0108767307043930.
Florence, Alastair J. 2008. "Approaches to high-throughput physical form screening and discovery." In Polymorphism: in the Pharmaceutical Industry, edited by Rolf Hilfiker, 139-184. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
Leeson, Paul D., and Brian Springthorpe. 2007. "The Influence of Drug-Like Concepts on Decision-Making in Medicinal Chemistry." Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 6 (11): 881-890.
Bond, Andrew D., Roland Boese, and Gautam R. Desiraju. 2007. "On the polymorphism of aspirin: crystalline aspirin as intergrowths of two polymorphic domains." Angewandte Chemie International Edition 46 (4): 618-622. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200603373.
Hilfiker, Rolf, ed. 2006. Polymorphism in the Pharmaceutical Industry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
Singhal, Dharmendra, and William Curatolo. 2004. "Drug Polymorphism and Dosage Form Design: A Practical Perspective." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 56 (3): 335-347.
Datta, Sapan, and David J. W. Grant. 2004. "Crystal structures of drugs: advances in determination, prediction and engineering." Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 3 (1): 42-57. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1280.
Allen, Frank H. 2002. "The Cambridge Structural Database: a quarter of a million crystal structures and rising." Acta Crystallographica B 58 (3): 380-388. https://doi.org/10.1107/S0108768102003890.
Bauer, Jeffery, Stephen Spanton, Rodger Henry, et al. 2001. "Ritonavir: an extraordinary example of conformational polymorphism." Pharmaceutical Research 18 (6): 859-866. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011052932607.
Vippagunta, Sudha R., Harry G. Brittain, and David J. W. Grant. 2001. "Crystalline solids." Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 48 (1): 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-409X(01)00097-7.
Mullin, John W. 2001. Crystallization. 4th ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Chemburkar, Sanjay R., Jeffery Bauer, Klaus Deming, et al. 2000. "Dealing with the impact of ritonavir polymorphs on the late stages of bulk drug process development." Organic Process Research & Development 4 (5): 413-417. https://doi.org/10.1021/op000023y.
Davey, Roger J., and John Garside. 2000. From Molecules to Crystallizers: An Introduction to Crystallization. Oxford Chemistry Primer 86. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Bernstein, Joel, and Anthony L. Henck. 1998. "Disappearing and Reappearing Polymorphs — An Anathema to Crystal Engineering?" Crystal Engineering 1 (2): 119-125.
Threlfall, Terence L. 1995. "Analysis of organic polymorphs: a review." The Analyst 120 (10): 2435-2460. https://doi.org/10.1039/AN9952002435.
Desiraju, Gautam R. 1995. "Supramolecular synthons in crystal engineering — a new organic synthesis." Angewandte Chemie International Edition 34 (21): 2311-2327. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.199523111.
Bürgi, Hans-Beat, and Jack D. Dunitz, eds. 1994. Structure Correlation. 2 vols. Weinheim: VCH.
Gavezzotti, Angelo. 1994. "Are crystal structures predictable?" Accounts of Chemical Research 27 (10): 309-314. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar00046a004.
Etter, Margaret C. 1990. "Encoding and decoding hydrogen-bond patterns of organic compounds." Accounts of Chemical Research 23 (4): 120-126. https://doi.org/10.1021/ar00172a005.
Burger, Artur, and Rudolf Ramberger. 1979. "On the polymorphism of pharmaceuticals and other molecular crystals. I. Theory of thermodynamic rules." Mikrochimica Acta 72 (3-4): 259-271. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01197379.
Haleblian, John, and Walter McCrone. 1969. "Pharmaceutical applications of polymorphism." Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 58 (8): 911-929. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.2600580802.
McCrone, Walter C. 1965. "Polymorphism." In Physics and Chemistry of the Organic Solid State, edited by David Fox, Mortimer M. Labes, and Arnold Weissberger, vol. 2, 725-767. New York: Interscience.
Ostwald, Wilhelm. 1897. "Studien über die Bildung und Umwandlung fester Körper." Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie 22: 289-330.
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📚 RIFERIMENTI (Bibliografia complessiva, Chicago Author-Date) 108 elementi
Tutte le fonti scientifiche citate negli accordion sopra per il CAS 77-92-9.Formato: Chicago Manual of Style 17ª ed., sistema Author-Date.
AIST. 2026. Spectral Database for Organic Compounds (SDBS): CAS 77-92-9. Tsukuba, Japan: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. https://sdbs.db.aist.go.jp/. (Accessed 2026-11-12.)
PubChem. 2026. PubChem Compound Summary: CAS 77-92-9. Bethesda, MD: National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), National Library of Medicine. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/#query=77-92-9. (Accessed 2026-11-12.)
European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). 2024. "Annex VI to Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 (CLP) — Harmonised Classification and Labelling." ECHA, Helsinki / Official Journal of the European Union. https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/clp/clp-classification.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2017. "Recommendations for Chemical Protective Clothing: A Companion to the NIOSH Pocket Guide." U.S. Department of Health & Human Services / CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ncpc/default.html.
Connors, Kenneth A., Gordon L. Amidon, and Valentino J. Stella. 1986. Chemical Stability of Pharmaceuticals: A Handbook for Pharmacists, 2nd ed.. New York: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471734683.
IARC. 2026. IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans: CAS 77-92-9. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. (Accessed 2026-11-12.)
📄 Articoli scientifici (peer-reviewed)
Stefanis, Emmanuel, and Costas Panayiotou. 2008. "Prediction of Hansen Solubility Parameters with a New Group-Contribution Method." International Journal of Thermophysics 29: 568-585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10765-008-0415-z.
Stoll, Vincent S., and John S. Blanchard. 1990. "Buffers: Principles and Practice: In Methods in Enzymology, vol. 182." San Diego: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/0076-6879(90)82008-P.
European Parliament. 2008. "Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures (CLP)." Official Journal of the European Union L 353: 1–1355.
United Nations. 2021. Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). 9th revised ed. ST/SG/AC.10/30/Rev.9. New York and Geneva: United Nations. https://unece.org/ghs-rev9-2021.
U.S. OSHA. 2026. "Occupational Safety and Health Guidance: CAS 77-92-9." Washington, DC: U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. https://www.osha.gov/hazwoper. (Accessed 2026-11-12.)
National Fire Protection Association (2018) — NFPA 472: Standard for Competence of Responders to Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Incidents https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/nfpa-472.
U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2024) — NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/.
Snyder, Lloyd R., John W. Dolan, and Joseph J. Kirkland. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. Wiley.
Schoenmakers, Peter J.. 1986. Optimization of Chromatographic Selectivity: A Guide to Method Development. Elsevier.
Snyder, L. R., and J. W. Dolan. 2007. High-Performance Gradient Elution: The Practical Application of the Linear-Solvent-Strength Model. Wiley.
Nikitas, Pavlos, and Adrian Pappa-Louisi. 2009. "Retention models for isocratic and gradient elution in reversed-phase liquid chromatography." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1737-1755. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.10.005.
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations." Journal of Separation Science 30: 1167-1182. https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200700026.
Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. 100 Years of Chromatography. Wiley-VCH.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac101742z.
Van Deemter, J. J., F. J. Zuiderweg, and A. Klinkenberg. 1956. "Longitudinal diffusion and resistance to mass transfer as causes of nonideality in chromatography." https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(56)80003-1.
Giddings, J. Calvin. 1965. "Dynamics of Chromatography, Part I: Principles and Theory." Marcel Dekker.
Wu, Naijun, and Anton M. Clausen. 2007. "Fundamental and practical aspects of ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography for fast separations." https://doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200700026.
Snyder, L. R., J. J. Kirkland, and J. L. Glajch. 1997. "Practical HPLC Method Development." Wiley.
Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." https://doi.org/10.1021/ac101742z.
Sadek, Paul C.. 2002. "The HPLC Solvent Guide." Wiley-Interscience.
Foley, Joe P., and John G. Dorsey. 1983. "Equations for calculation of chromatographic figures of merit for ideal and skewed peaks." https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00255a033.
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183.
United States Pharmacopeial Convention. 2024. "USP <621> Chromatography." In United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary, USP 47-NF 42. Rockville, MD: USP. https://www.uspnf.com/.
International Organization for Standardization. 2017. "ISO/IEC 17025:2017 General Requirements for the Competence of Testing and Calibration Laboratories." Geneva: ISO. https://www.iso.org/standard/66912.html.
Kolthoff, Izaak Maurits, and Philip J. Elving, eds. 1978. Treatise on Analytical Chemistry, Part I: Theory and Practice. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Skoog, Douglas A., F. James Holler, and Stanley R. Crouch. 2018. Principles of Instrumental Analysis. 7th ed. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Christian, Gary D., Purnendu K. Dasgupta, and Kevin A. Schug. 2014. Analytical Chemistry. 7th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183.
U.S. FDA. 2026. "FDA Guidance and Resources: CAS 77-92-9." Silver Spring, MD: U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/media/74954/download. (Accessed 2026-11-12.)
International Organization for Standardization. 1994. "ISO 5725-2:1994 Accuracy (Trueness and Precision) of Measurement Methods and Results — Part 2: Basic Method for the Determination of Repeatability and Reproducibility of a Standard Measurement Method." Geneva: ISO. https://www.iso.org/standard/11834.html.
Grubbs, Frank E. 1950. "Sample Criteria for Testing Outlying Observations." Annals of Mathematical Statistics 21 (1): 27–58.
Dixon, Wilfrid J. 1950. "Analysis of Extreme Values." Annals of Mathematical Statistics 21 (4): 488–506.
Snedecor, George W., and William G. Cochran. 1989. Statistical Methods. 8th ed. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
Student [William Sealy Gosset]. 1908. "The Probable Error of a Mean." Biometrika 6 (1): 1–25.
International Organization for Standardization. 2005. "ISO 3534-1:2006 Statistics — Vocabulary and Symbols — Part 1: General Statistical Terms and Terms Used in Probability." Geneva: ISO. https://www.iso.org/standard/40145.html.
Thompson, Michael, Stephen L. R. Ellison, and Roger Wood. 2002. "Harmonized Guidelines for Single-Laboratory Validation of Methods of Analysis." Pure and Applied Chemistry 74 (5): 835–855.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. 2024. European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), Applicable as from 1 January 2025 (ECE/TRANS/352). Geneva: UNECE. https://unece.org/transport/dangerous-goods/adr-2025-edition.
Ministerstwo Klimatu i Srodowiska. 2026. "Baza Danych o Odpadach (BDO): CAS 77-92-9." Warszawa: Ministerstwo Klimatu i Srodowiska. https://bdo.mos.gov.pl/. (Accessed 2026-11-12.)
Pohanish, Richard P.. 2017. "Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens." Elsevier.
Lewis, Richard J.. 2012. "Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials." Wiley.
NIOSH. 2024. "Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards." U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/.
IPCS INCHEM. 2024. "International Programme on Chemical Safety — Waste Management Guidelines." WHO/UNEP/ILO. https://www.inchem.org/.
International Organization for Standardization. 2017. "ISO/IEC 17025:2017 General requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories." ISO. https://www.iso.org/standard/66912.html.
World Health Organization. 2010. "WHO Good Manufacturing Practices for Pharmaceutical Products: Main Principles (WHO Technical Report Series No. 957, Annex 3)." WHO Press. https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/trs957-annex3.
Pharmaceutical Inspection Co-operation Scheme (PIC/S). 2021. "Guide to Good Manufacturing Practice for Medicinal Products PE 009-15." PIC/S Secretariat, Geneva. https://picscheme.org/en/publications.
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