液氮 — 标签 CAS 7727-37-9

液氮

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Azot, CAS 7727-37-9

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MolGod_SDSCARD_1
REACH 2020/878
v1 · 19.07.2026
Kategoria:
🧬 3D分子可视化器
正在加载分子...
3D模型Nitrogen，CAS 7727-37-9，分子式N2, 摩尔质量 28.014 g/mol

数据转录自法规登记册和专业文献，并注明来源与版本。不能替代供应商的安全数据表。未记录来源的字段已作相应标注。

化学概述: NitrogenMolGod_OVERVIEW_1
分子式N2[1]
分子量28.014 g/mol[1]
熔点-210.01 °C[1][2]
沸点-195.79 °C[1]
密度0.807 g/cm³[1]
LogP（亲脂性）0.1[1]
SMILESN#N[1]
InChIKeyIJGRMHOSHXDMSA-UHFFFAOYSA-N[1]

同义词: Nitrogen · Nitrogen gas · Molecular nitrogen · Dinitrogen · 7727-37-9

数据来源： PubChem (NLM/NIH)
最后更新： 2026-07-30

📚 科学参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式） (2 来源)
  1. PubChem. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NIH/NLM), chemical compound database. ↗ applies to: 分子式 · 分子量 · 熔点 · 沸点 · 密度 · LogP（亲脂性） · SMILES · InChIKey
  2. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). CHEMINFO - Chemical Profiles. Hamilton, ON: CCOHS. ↗ applies to: 熔点
📊 物理化学性质

快速参考

化学式： N2
分子量： 28.014 g/mol
CAS号： 7727-37-9
外观： 无色气体
气味： 无臭气体

详细性质

Uzupełnienie tabeli „Właściwości fizykochemiczne (baza danych)” poniżej — powtórzone wartości pokazujemy tylko raz.

属性 值 单位 条件 来源
蒸气压 -236 °C at 1Pa (solid); -232 °C at 10Pa (solid); -226.8 °C at 100Pa (solid); -220.2 °C at 1kPa (solid); -211.1 °C at 10kPa (solid); -195.9 °C at 100kPa (N2)[1] Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) ↗
黏度（η） 7.0 at 100 K; 12.0 at 200 K; 17.9 at 300 K; 22.2 at 400 K; 26.1 at 500 K; 29.6 at 600 K (all in uPa.s; N2)[1] Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) ↗
折射率（nD） Index of refraction (one atmosphere, 0 °C, wavelength): 1.003012 at 0.4861 um; 1.002998 at 0.5461 um; 1.002990 at 0.5893 un; 1.002982 at 0.6563 um (N2)[1] Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB) ↗
🔬 高级属性

化学标识符

SMILES: N#N
InChI: InChI=1S/N2/c1-2
InChIKey: IJGRMHOSHXDMSA-UHFFFAOYSA-N

数据来源： Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB)

最后更新： 2026-07-11

📚 科学参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式） (1 来源)
  1. NLM. Hazardous Substances Data Bank (HSDB). National Library of Medicine. ↗ applies to: 蒸气压 · 黏度（η） · 折射率（nD）
物质监管状态
该物质受监管要求约束： 危险废物管理（BDO登记册）. 详细信息请参见“法规状态（REACH/ECHA/CLP）”章节及安全数据表。 监管信息——不限制在本店购买。
🧮 化学计量计算器MolGod_STOICH_1
🔍 外部标识符MolGod_EXTID_1
8 / 16个ID系统50%
数据库标识符操作
CAS Registry Number7727-37-9打开 →
PubChem CID947[1]打开 →
InChIKeyIJGRMHOSHXDMSA-UHFFFAOYSA-N[1]打开 →
InChIInChI=1S/N2/c1-2[1]
SMILESN#N[1]
EC Number231-783-9[2]打开 →
ChEMBLCHEMBL142438[3]打开 →
WikiData QIDQ1139370打开 →

来源：PubChem (NIH)、Wikidata SPARQL、KEGG、ChEMBL (EBI)、CompTox CTX (EPA)。

📚 科学参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式） (3 来源)
  1. PubChem. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NIH/NLM), chemical compound database. ↗ applies to: PubChem CID · InChIKey · InChI · SMILES
  2. ECHA. EC Inventory — EINECS, ELINCS, NLP and List Numbers assigned under REACH. Helsinki: European Chemicals Agency. ↗ applies to: EC Number
  3. ChEMBL. European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), bioactivity database. ↗ applies to: ChEMBL
⚛ 原子可视化 — 氮 MolGod_ATOMVIZ_1
N
氮
Nitrogen
Z = 7 | 非金属
原子质量
14.007 u
熔点
-210 °C
沸点
-195.79 °C
密度
0.00125 g/cm³
电负性
3.04
族 / 周期
15 / 2
7 质子数
7 neutronów
K: 2e⁻ L: 5e⁻
[He] 2s² 2p³
📡 光谱学 — CAS 7727-37-9MolGod_SPECHUB_MAIN
📊 光谱数据库 — 内联数据 8 来源 MolGod_SPECDB_2

光谱按需从9个来源获取。每个光谱都存储在我们的数据库中 — 下次打开时无需向外部API发出请求。无需搜索即可为每个光谱下载JCAMP-DX / CSV / PNG。

IR IR (Infrared) — NIST WebBook
Public domain (US Federal)
▶ 点击加载光谱
🔗 来源
— 点
📚 NIST Chemistry WebBook, SRD 69
MS (NIST) Mass Spectrum (EI) — NIST WebBook
Public domain (US Federal)
▶ 点击加载光谱
🔗 来源
— 点
📚 NIST Standard Reference Database 1A
UV-Vis UV/Visible Absorption — NIST WebBook
Public domain (US Federal)
▶ 点击加载光谱
🔗 来源
— 点
📚 NIST Chemistry WebBook, SRD 69
MS (MoNA) MoNA — MassBank of North America
CC-BY 4.0
▶ 点击加载光谱
🔗 来源
— 点
📚 MassBank of North America (UC Davis) DOI: 10.1002/jms.1777
IR/NMR/MS (SDBS) SDBS — Spectral Database for Organic Compounds (Japan AIST)
Free for non-commercial

参考来源 — 无公共API。在外部数据库中打开：

🔗 IR/NMR/MS (SDBS) →
📚 SDBSWeb: https://sdbs.db.aist.go.jp (AIST, Japan)
JP Monograph Japanese Pharmacopoeia — Monographs
Reference only

参考来源 — 无公共API。在外部数据库中打开：

🔗 JP Monograph →
📚 Japanese Pharmacopoeia 18th Edition (2021)
WHO INN WHO — International Nonproprietary Names
WHO Model Lists (free)

参考来源 — 无公共API。在外部数据库中打开：

🔗 WHO INN →
📚 WHO INN Programme
DOAJ DOAJ — Directory of Open Access Journals
OA journal index (mixed)

参考来源 — 无公共API。在外部数据库中打开：

🔗 DOAJ →
📚 DOAJ — doaj.org

数据仅获取一次（JCAMP-DX 解析器），并保存在插件的本地数据库中。不重复下载，再次打开时不查询 NIST。遵守许可（仅发布深层链接和自有可视化）。

🔬 交互式光谱（实时 — NIST / MoNA / NMRShiftDB / SDBS） (2)

数据从多个来源实时获取（优先级链）。每个光谱下可下载JCAMP-DX / CSV / PNG。

IR — 傅里叶变换红外光谱

正在加载 IR — 傅里叶变换红外光谱…

MS — 质谱（EI 70eV）

正在加载 MS — 质谱（EI 70eV）…

📐 理化性质（数据库） 5 字段 MolGod评分：可靠
属性 值 单位 条件 来源
熔点 -210.01 [1][2] °C 1 atm PubChem PUG-View
沸点 -195.79 [1] °C PubChem PUG-View
水溶性 18.1 [1][3] g/L 25°C PubChem PUG-View
密度 (ρ) 0.807 [1] g/cm³ 160°C PubChem PUG-View
logP (辛醇/水) 0.1 [1] — PubChem PUG-View
📚 科学参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式） (3 来源)
  1. PubChem. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NIH/NLM), chemical compound database. ↗ applies to: 熔点 · 沸点 · 水溶性 · 密度 (ρ) · logP (辛醇/水)
  2. Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). CHEMINFO - Chemical Profiles. Hamilton, ON: CCOHS. ↗ applies to: 熔点
  3. Reichl, U., and J. Hengstenberg. 1x1 der Gase: Physikalische Daten fur Wissenschaft und Praxis. Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag. applies to: 水溶性

物理化学值来源于上述独立、同行评审的来源。

🔄 浓度单位转换器 实时 MolGod_UNITCONV_1

输入Nitrogen浓度（任意单位），其余将自动计算。

分子量： 28.014 g/mol · IUPAC Gold Book ↗

⚗️ 转换公式及引用（每个公式）
转换分子式准确度来源
% (w/v) ↔ molarityc (mol/L) = (% × 10) / MW±0.5% rel. when density ≈ 1.0 g/mLIUPAC (2019)
millimolar ↔ molarc (mol/L) = mM × 10⁻³ExactCohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
molarity (mol/L)c = n/V = (m/MW)/V±0.1% (depends on MW precision)IUPAC (2019)
parts per million (mg/L) ↔ molarityc (mol/L) = ppm / (1000 × MW); equivalently ppm = mg/L for dilute aqueous±1% (density-independent for dilute solutions)IUPAC (2019)
mg/mL ↔ molarityc (mol/L) = (mg/mL × 1000) / MW / 1000 = mg/mL / MW × 1±0.2%Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
g/L ↔ molarityc (mol/L) = (g/L) / MW±0.1% (depends on MW precision)Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
mmol/L ↔ molarityc (mol/L) = mmol/L × 10⁻³ExactCohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
Celsius ↔ KelvinT(K) = t(°C) + 273.15±0.01 K (ITS-90 scale)BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) (2019)
Celsius ↔ FahrenheitT(°F) = T(°C) × 9/5 + 32±0.1 °FThompson A, Taylor BN (2008)
density-corrected % ↔ molarityc (mol/L) = (%w/w × ρ × 10) / MW, ρ in g/mL±0.1% when ρ known to 3 decimalsCohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007)
📚 参考文献（8个权威来源）
  1. Thompson A, Taylor BN (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). NIST Special Publication 811 · DOI: 10.6028/NIST.SP.811-2008
    → Primary SI standard for US scientific usage
  2. Cohen ER, Cvitaš T, Frey JG, Holmström B, Kuchitsu K, Marquardt R, Mills I, Pavese F, Quack M, Stohner J, Strauss HL, Takami M, Thor AJ (2007). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry — The IUPAC Green Book. RSC Publishing, 3rd ed. · DOI: 10.1039/9781847557889 · ISBN: 978-0-85404-433-7
    → Canonical IUPAC guide for chemistry quantities/units
  3. BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures) (2019). The International System of Units (SI), 9th edition. BIPM · ↗
    → International SI definitions (incl. redefined kilogram 2019)
  4. ISO/IEC (2022). Quantities and units — Part 1: General. International Organization for Standardization — ISO 80000-1:2022 · ↗
    → General rules for physical quantities and units
  5. ISO/IEC (2019). Quantities and units — Part 9: Physical chemistry and molecular physics. International Organization for Standardization — ISO 80000-9:2019 · ↗
    → Concentration / molality / amount-of-substance conventions
  6. Tiesinga E, Mohr PJ, Newell DB, Taylor BN (2021). CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2018. Rev. Mod. Phys. 93(2):025010 · DOI: 10.1103/RevModPhys.93.025010
    → Avogadro, gas constant, molar volume (2019 SI revision)
  7. IUPAC (2019). Compendium of Chemical Terminology — the IUPAC Gold Book (online). IUPAC · DOI: 10.1351/goldbook
    → Definitions of mass fraction, molality, normality, ppm, activity
  8. Mills IM, Cvitaš T, Homann K, Kallay N, Kuchitsu K (1988). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1st ed. · ISBN: 0-632-01773-5
    → Historical predecessor of IUPAC Green Book
🛡️ 安全 — CAS 7727-37-9MolGod_SAFEHUB_MAIN
数据限制说明。 本页安全信息仅供参考，不能替代完整的安全数据表（SDS）。使用产品前，请查阅制造商当前的安全数据表以及GHS/CLP指南。CLP分类适用于纯散装物质，不适用于商业制剂。

GHS/CLP分类——(EC) No 1272/2008法规 + UN GHS Rev. 9 (2021)。

⚠️ 危险 (Danger)
GHS04 — 加压气体
GHS04 加压气体

🚨 危险说明（H）

  • H280 — 内装加压气体；遇热可能爆炸
  • H304 — 吞咽并进入呼吸道可能致命
  • H401 — 对水生生物有毒

🛡 防范说明（P）

  • P501 — 处置内装物/容器……

⚠ 基于来源共识的分类（PubChem/供应商通知）——未与附件VI（CLP）中的统一分类进行验证。危害范围可能比官方分类更广；使用前请与供应商当前的安全数据表进行验证。

翻译：CLP 法规 (EC) 1272/2008，附件 III 和 IV。数据：PubChem/NLM。

📚 综合科学参考文献 — Chicago Author-Date 10 来源

从所有Safety Hub选项卡收集的参考文献。CAS号： 7727-37-9 · PubChem ↗

  1. Parlament Europejski i Rada UE. 2008. "Rozporządzenie (WE) nr 1272/2008 w sprawie klasyfikacji, oznakowania i pakowania substancji (CLP)." Dz.Urz. UE L 353. [↗] GHS，法规
  2. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). 2021. "Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), Ninth Revised Edition." United Nations, Geneva. [↗] GHS
  3. Goldfrank, Lewis R., Robert S. Hoffman, Mary Ann Howland, et al.. 2019. "Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies, 11th ed.." McGraw-Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-1-25-985961-8. Pierwsza pomoc, Toksykologia
  4. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2023. "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards (DHHS Publ. 2005-149)." U.S. Department of Health and Human Services / CDC, Cincinnati, OH. [↗] Pierwsza pomoc, PPE, Toksykologia
  5. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2016. "EN 374-1:2016 — Protective gloves against dangerous chemicals and micro-organisms." CEN, Brussels. [↗] PPE
  6. UNECE. 2023. "European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR 2025)." United Nations, Geneva. [↗] Utylizacja, Regulacje
  7. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2022. "NFPA 400 — Hazardous Materials Code." NFPA, Quincy, MA. [↗] Magazynowanie
  8. Urben, P.G. (ed.). 2017. "Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, 8th ed.." Butterworth-Heinemann / Elsevier, Oxford. [↗] Magazynowanie
  9. Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska RP. 2023. "Baza danych o produktach i opakowaniach oraz o gospodarce odpadami (BDO)." Ministerstwo Klimatu i Środowiska, Warszawa. [↗] Utylizacja
  10. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC / WHO). 2024. "IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans — List of Classifications." WHO, Lyon. [↗] Toksykologia

具有自身参考文献的选项卡（紧急情况、个人防护装备、储存、废物）在其各自章节中包含额外的书目条目。

📈 分析统计（t检验·RSD·Grubbs·Q-Dixon） ICH Q2

粘贴一系列重复测量结果（CSV或每行一个数字）。计算器将计算平均值、标准差和95%置信区间，并检测异常值（Grubbs + Dixon Q）。

分隔符：逗号、空格、制表符、换行。至少3个测量值。
📐 统计公式
  • x̄ = Σxᵢ / n — 算术平均值
  • s² = Σ(xᵢ - x̄)² / (n-1) — 样本方差
  • s = √s² — 标准差
  • RSD% = (s / x̄) × 100% — 相对标准差
  • CI₉₅ = x̄ ± t(0.05, n-1) × s / √n — Student's t
  • G = |xᵢ - x̄| / s — Grubbs检验
  • Q = |xsuspect - xnearest| / |xmax - xmin| — Dixon Q-test

来源：ICH Q2(R2) 分析方法验证 · ICH PDF ↗

🔧 HPLC故障排除——决策树 6 常见问题

6种最常见HPLC问题的诊断及决策树（每个问题5个步骤）。 来源： Snyder/Kirkland/Dolan 3rd ed. Chapter 17 + LCGC LC Troubleshooting columns 1989-2024.

宽峰 medium

症状： 色谱图上所有峰都比预期宽（半峰宽 > 2倍正常值）

🔍 诊断树：
  1. 1. 检查是所有峰变宽还是只有部分峰
    → 是： 所有峰→仪器问题（色谱柱或系统）
    → 否： 仅部分峰→化学问题（特定分析物与色谱柱的相互作用）
  2. 2. 更换测试柱——问题是否消失？
    → 是： 色谱柱已耗尽——填料损坏，前几毫米有空隙。更换。
    → 否： 液相色谱系统问题
  3. 3. 检查死体积——进样环、连接件、检测器
    → 是： 对于4.6 mm色谱柱，进样环 > 100 µL或连接松动→更换卡套，缩短管路
    → 否： 继续诊断
  4. 4. 温度测试：将色谱柱从25°C升至40°C
    → 是： 峰变窄→传质动力学过慢（升高温度）
    → 否： Continue
  5. 5. 检查流速与该色谱柱的最佳范德姆特值
    → 是： 4.6mm/5µm的最佳流速为1.0 mL/min，2.1mm/3µm的最佳流速为0.4 mL/min
    → 否： Continue
⚠️ 常见原因：
  • 色谱柱已耗尽（无保护柱时超过2000次进样）
  • 系统死体积 > 100 µL（错误的进样环、长管路、卡套松动）
  • 温度过低（传质动力学）
  • 流速超出范德姆特最佳值
  • 样品溶剂比流动相A更强
✓ 修复方法：
  • ✓ 更换色谱柱（当>2000次进样时）
  • ✓ 检查所有连接——管路尽可能短
  • ✓ 将色谱柱温度升至40°C（如果物质稳定）
  • ✓ 将流速降至van Deemter最佳值
  • ✓ 将样品溶解在流动相A中（而非纯有机相）
峰拖尾（拖尾因子T > 1.5） high

症状： 峰在晚洗脱侧有延伸的“拖尾”（根据USP，不对称度T = b/a > 1.5）

🔍 诊断树：
  1. 1. 物质是否含有碱性基团（氨基、吡啶）？
    → 是： 是 → 硅醇相互作用！向流动相A中添加0.1% TFA或5-10 mM TEA。
    → 否： Continue
  2. 2. 检查流动相pH与物质pKa的关系
    → 是： pH = pKa ± 1 → 部分电离，峰分裂。使pH远离pKa ≥ 2个单位。
    → 否： Continue
  3. 3. 检查色谱柱使用时间（>1500次进样？）
    → 是： 是 → 硅醇暴露（柱流失）。更换为具有更高封端度的色谱柱（XTerra、Symmetry）。
    → 否： Continue
  4. 4. 样品是否含有金属（来自玻璃小瓶的Fe、Cu）？
    → 是： 是 → 使用II型无色小瓶或PFA小瓶。向样品中添加0.1mM EDTA。
    → 否： Continue
⚠️ 常见原因：
  • 硅醇相互作用（碱性分析物 + 硅胶游离硅醇）
  • pH处于分析物pKa边界（峰分裂）
  • 旧色谱柱（柱流失，高硅醇活性）
  • 样品中的金属（螯合 → 拖尾）
  • 色谱柱过载（4.6mm色谱柱上>50 µg）
✓ 修复方法：
  • ✓ 向流动相A中加入0.1% TFA（UV）或0.1%甲酸（LC-MS）
  • ✓ 选择高纯度封端的色谱柱：Waters XBridge BEH、Phenomenex Kinetex
  • ✓ 在pH值距离pKa ≥ 2个单位的条件下操作
  • ✓ 向样品中加入0.1mM EDTA（螯合Fe/Cu）
  • ✓ 对于4.6 mm色谱柱，将进样体积减少至≤ 20 µL
基线漂移 medium

症状： 基线在>5分钟内系统性上升或下降

🔍 诊断树：
  1. 1. 是否使用梯度（B%增加）？
    → 是： 是 → 流动相A与B在检测波长下吸收不同。溶剂更换导致UV截止波长变化。检查有机相UV吸光度百分比。
    → 否： 继续（等度）
  2. 2. 检查色谱柱温度——是否稳定在±0.5°C？
    → 是： 是（稳定）→ 继续
    → 否： 不稳定 → 开启柱温箱（>25°C受控）
  3. 3. 测试：关闭自动进样器，仅运行泵+色谱柱+检测器
    → 是： 漂移消失 → 自动进样器污染（清洁针头、隔垫）
    → 否： Continue
  4. 4. 检查灯的使用时间（UV用D2灯）
    → 是： 是（>1500小时）→ 更换灯
    → 否： Continue
⚠️ 常见原因：
  • 梯度洗脱，流动相UV截止值不同
  • 色谱柱温度不稳定
  • 自动进样器针头/隔垫污染
  • UV灯老化（>1500h）
  • 检测器流通池污染
  • 色谱柱未平衡（<10个柱体积）
✓ 修复方法：
  • ✓ 用100% A预平衡色谱柱10-15个柱体积
  • ✓ 开启色谱柱恒温箱，温度30-40°C稳定
  • ✓ 用50:50乙腈-水溶液清洗检测器流通池
  • ✓ 如果D2灯使用时间>1500小时，请更换
  • ✓ 使用基线扣除（Chromeleon、Empower原生功能）
无峰/丢失峰 critical

症状： 预期分析物峰未出现在色谱图上

🔍 诊断树：
  1. 1. 进样是否实际发生？
    → 是： 检查自动进样器日志、泵压力（进样时应下降）
    → 否： 自动进样器问题→检查定量环、进样针、样品瓶中的样品
  2. 2. 样品是否在样品瓶中（体积正确，未蒸发）？
    → 是： Continue
    → 否： 无样品——重新移液
  3. 3. 样品稳定性——制备时间是否超过24小时？
    → 是： 是→降解。重新制备新鲜样品。
    → 否： Continue
  4. 4. 检查检测波长与物质的λmax是否匹配
    → 是： 检测波长与λmax不匹配→无信号。扫描DAD 200-400nm。
    → 否： Continue
  5. 5. 测试：进样纯标准品（已知浓度，新鲜）
    → 是： 标准品出峰→样品问题（基质、衍生化）
    → 否： 标准品也无峰→系统问题（色谱柱、流动相、梯度）
⚠️ 常见原因：
  • 样品未从样品瓶中抽取（自动进样器故障）
  • 样品降解（超过24小时，pH/温度/光照）
  • 检测波长错误
  • 流动相错误（例如忘记加TFA）
  • 色谱柱接反/固定相错误
  • 物质在死时间（V0）洗脱→无保留，不可见
✓ 修复方法：
  • ✓ 严格按照协议重新制备新鲜样品
  • ✓ 紫外-可见DAD扫描200-400nm并搜索λmax
  • ✓ 检查流动相组成——是否添加了TFA？
  • ✓ 测试色谱柱反向（小心！）
  • ✓ 对于保留时间<1分钟——降低B比例，用甲醇代替乙腈
  • ✓ 在插件方法库中检查预期保留时间
压力过高 critical

症状： 泵压力>色谱柱最大压力的80%或系统因高压错误停机

🔍 诊断树：
  1. 1. 检查色谱柱是否连接正确（箭头方向）
    → 是： OK
    → 否： 色谱柱接反→将其翻转（切勿反向安装运行）
  2. 2. 测试：从系统中移除色谱柱，仅运行泵+检测器
    → 是： 压力降至 <50 bar → 色谱柱问题（堵塞）
    → 否： 压力保持高位 → 在线过滤器堵塞，烧结滤片污染
  3. 3. 检查预柱过滤器（在线烧结滤片）
    → 是： 污染且变棕色 → 更换
    → 否： Continue
  4. 4. 用 50:50 ACN:H2O 反向冲洗（不带色谱柱）——问题消失？
    → 是： 颗粒卡在第一毫米处——冲洗 30 分钟可能恢复
    → 否： 更换色谱柱
⚠️ 常见原因：
  • 在线过滤器（烧结滤片）被颗粒堵塞
  • 缓冲盐析（高 %B 时沉淀）
  • 样品含有悬浮物（进样前用 0.22 µm 过滤）
  • 色谱柱堵塞（柱床压实）
  • 梯度含缓冲液相 + 高有机相 → 盐沉淀
✓ 修复方法：
  • ✓ 进样前务必用0.22 µm PVDF过滤样品
  • ✓ 每100次进样（或压力升高>20%时）更换在线过滤器
  • ✓ 不要使用>20mM磷酸盐缓冲液+>70%乙腈（盐会析出）
  • ✓ 用50:50乙腈:水反向冲洗色谱柱30分钟（如果制造商允许）
  • ✓ 使用4×3mm预柱保护主色谱柱
鬼峰 high

症状： 色谱图上校准中不存在的无法解释的峰

🔍 诊断树：
  1. 1. 测试：空白进样（纯样品溶剂）
    → 是： 出现鬼峰 → 系统或洗脱液污染
    → 否： 仅与样品一起出现 → 基质
  2. 2. 鬼峰是否随梯度增大（在高 %B 下洗脱）？
    → 是： 是 → 色谱柱过载或前一次运行中的强保留物质
    → 否： 与梯度无关 → 自动进样器残留
  3. 3. Increase carryover wash (between injections)
    → 是： 有帮助 → 残留是原因。使用更强的清洗程序。
    → 否： Continue
  4. 4. 纯水进样——是否有峰？
    → 是： 是 → 水源污染（来自 DI 系统的有机物）
    → 否： Continue
⚠️ 常见原因：
  • 自动进样器针/定量环中的残留
  • 洗脱液污染（即使是 HPLC 级）
  • 前一次运行中的强保留组分
  • 样品瓶中的塑料（邻苯二甲酸酯、来自瓶盖的 PEG）
  • 纯化不充分的去离子水
✓ 修复方法：
  • ✓ 加强清洗程序：100% B → 100% A → 50:50（3个循环）
  • ✓ 校准前进行强清洗：100% DMSO或100%甲醇
  • ✓ 如有疑问，用0.22 µm PTFE过滤洗脱液
  • ✓ 使用琥珀色玻璃瓶和聚四氟乙烯内衬盖盛装样品
  • ✓ 定期进行梯度升至100% B并持续10分钟（清洗）
📚 科学参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式）——点击展开
  1. Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 17 (Troubleshooting) pp. 559-616. ISBN 978-0-470-16754-0. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 [link ↗]
  2. Dolan, John W.. 2014. LC Troubleshooting (monthly column 1989-2024). LCGC North America. [link ↗] — John Dolan 35-letnia seria miesięcznych artykułów problemowych
  3. Kromidas, Stavros. 2017. HPLC Made to Measure: A Practical Handbook for Optimization. 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-31377-1. — Praktyczny przewodnik problem-solving dla labs analitycznych
  4. Dolan, John W.. 2013. When to Modify Method Conditions. 192-199. [link ↗] — Decision flow for changing flow rate / temperature / %B vs swapping columns.
  5. Dong, Michael W.. 2019. HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists. 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-31378-3. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793 [link ↗] — Chapter 9 covers troubleshooting modern UHPLC systems (sub-2 µm particles).
  6. Meyer, Veronika R.. 2010. Practical High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. 5th ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-68218-0. — Solid step-by-step problem isolation chapter (eluents, columns, instruments).
  7. Snyder, L. R., J. J. Kirkland, and J. L. Glajch. 1997. Practical HPLC Method Development. 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-00703-6. — Method-development companion volume with troubleshooting cross-refs.
  8. Carr, Peter W.. 2009. The new physical chemistry of HPLC. 1764-1772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.094 [link ↗] — Theoretical basis for diagnosing efficiency losses (mass-transfer, eddy diffusion).
  9. Heyden, Yvan Vander, et al.. 2009. Robustness of pharmaceutical liquid chromatographic methods. 2120-2129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.10.052 [link ↗] — How to diagnose method failures vs. system failures (Plackett-Burman).
  10. Engelhardt, Heinz. 2014. 100 Years of Chromatography. 2nd ed. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-33473-5. — Historical context for ghost-peak phenomenology (silica chemistry).
🧮 实验室计算器（8个） MolGod_LABCALC_1
稀释（C₁V₁=C₂V₂）
摩尔浓度（M=n/V）
pH缓冲液（Henderson-Hasselbalch）
Beer-Lambert（A=εcl）
质量→摩尔
浓度%→M
ppm→mg/L
温度 C↔F↔K

已验证的配方： IUPAC Gold Book ↗, DOI ↗

📊 光谱数据库 MolGod_SPECDB_3
🏷️ 标签生成器（QR码） MolGod_LABEL_1
液氮• Nitrogen / Nitrogen gas• CAS: 7727-37-9• 分子式: N2• 摩尔质量: 28.014 g/mol危险GHS危险说明：（供应商自我分类——不具约束力）H280: 内装加压气体；遇热可能爆炸P501: 处置内装物/容器……仅供实验室使用！DH ScientificScience first. Commerce as consequence.批号: 净含量: 生产日期:
Deskryptory Lipinskiego (struktura)
正在加载ADMET预测…
📚 科学文献概览 — CAS 7727-37-9MolGod_LITHUB_MAIN
⭐ 关键发现（科学文献） 19 出版物
🏆 CAS 7727-37-9 — multi-criteria ranking (W12): 30%引用·20%近期性·20%主题·15%历史·15%开放获取.
  1. #1
    José S. S. Neto, Gilson Zeni (2019) · Organic Chemistry Frontiers
    重要性： 196次引用 · open access
    SCORE 12.63 机制 引用次数： 196 Open Access DOI ↗
  2. #2
    Vijay Kakani, Sivalingam Ramesh, Hemraj M. Yadav et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports
    重要性： Open access
    SCORE 12.36 机制 引用次数： 79 Open Access DOI ↗
  3. #3
    Hector Valenzuela (2024) · Nitrogen
    重要性： 近期（2024） · open access
    SCORE 11.61 工业 引用次数： 60 Open Access DOI ↗
  4. #4
    Manuel A. Valdés-Madrigal, F. Montejo‐Alvaro, Amelia S. Cernas-Ruiz et al. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences
    重要性： 综述 · open access
    SCORE 9.89 综述 引用次数： 27 Open Access DOI ↗
  5. #5
    Thomas E. Marler (2020) · Nitrogen
    重要性： Open access
    SCORE 9.17 工业 引用次数： 10 Open Access DOI ↗
  6. #6
    Zhi-Yue Li, Haozhi Yang, Sheng‐Chi Chen et al. (2018) · Journal of Physics D Applied Physics
    重要性： Open access
    SCORE 8.79 机制 引用次数： 23 Open Access DOI ↗
  7. #7
    Joseph N. Amoah; Claudia Keitel; Brent N. Kaiser (2026) · Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 7.85 机制 Open Access DOI ↗ PubMed ↗
  8. #8
    Ahmed A. Almrasy; Omkulthom Al kamaly; Mustafa Sayedahmed (2026) · RSC Advances
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 7.05 分析 Open Access DOI ↗ PubMed ↗
  9. #9
    et al. (2026) · Plants
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
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  10. #10
    et al. (2026) · RSC Advances
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 7.05 机制 Open Access DOI ↗ PubMed ↗
  11. #11
    Rama Juha; Ibrahim Alghoraibi (2026) · Scientific Reports
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 7.05 分析 Open Access DOI ↗ PubMed ↗
  12. #12
    et al. (2026) · RSC Advances
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 7.05 机制 Open Access DOI ↗ PubMed ↗
  13. #13
    G Lakhanpal, N B Basu, G Cardenas- Alvarez et al. (2026) · Environmental Research Letters
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 7.05 机制 Open Access DOI ↗
  14. #14
    Nicolò Bassi, Shantanu Mishra, Zheng Zhang et al. (2026) · arXiv (2607.03267v1)
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 7.05 机制 Open Access
  15. #15
    P Arunvipas; I.R Dohoo; J.A VanLeeuwen; G.P Keefe (2003) · Preventive Veterinary Medicine
    重要性： Open access
    SCORE 6.54 工业 引用次数： 26 Open Access DOI ↗
  16. #16
    et al. (2026) · RSC Advances
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 6.25 机制 Open Access DOI ↗ PubMed ↗
  17. #17
    et al. (2026) · Scientific Reports
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 6.25 机制 Open Access DOI ↗ PubMed ↗
  18. #18
    Haidi Wang, Bin Yan, Xingkang Ma et al. (2026) · Journal of Integrative Agriculture
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 6.25 机制 Open Access DOI ↗
  19. #19
    Ke Zhang, Feng Zhang, Yaoming Li et al. (2026) · Journal of Integrative Agriculture
    重要性： 近期（2026） · open access
    SCORE 6.25 机制 Open Access DOI ↗
📐 HPLC峰对称性计算器（USP Tf / As）

根据峰半宽计算USP拖尾因子（Tf）和不对称度（As）。输入在峰高5%或10%处测量的a（左半宽）和b（右半宽）。

📚 参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式）
  1. USP General Chapter <621>. 2024. "Chromatography." United States Pharmacopeial Convention. [link ↗] — Defines USP Tailing Factor T = (a+b)/(2a) measured at 5% peak height.
  2. International Council for Harmonisation (ICH). 2023. "Validation of Analytical Procedures Q2(R2)." ICH Expert Working Group. [link ↗] — Tailing factor is a system suitability parameter (Section 6).
  3. Foley, Joe P., and John G. Dorsey. 1983. "Equations for calculation of chromatographic figures of merit for ideal and skewed peaks." Analytical Chemistry 55: 730-737 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00255a033 [link ↗] — Original asymmetry factor As = b/a at 10% height (Foley & Dorsey 1983).
  4. Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 [link ↗] — Chapter 2.4 — peak shape diagnostics and remedies.
  5. Dolan, John W.. 2003. "Peak tailing and resolution." LCGC North America 21: 610-614 [link ↗] — How tailing factor degrades effective resolution.
  6. Vivó-Truyols, Gabriel, and Hans-Gerd Janssen. 2010. "Probabilistic approach to peak deconvolution in chromatography." Analytical Chemistry 82: 8525-8531 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac101742z [link ↗] — Modern numerical deconvolution for asymmetric peaks.
  7. Kromidas, Stavros. 2017. "HPLC Made to Measure: A Practical Handbook for Optimization." Wiley-VCH. — Practical Tf and As thresholds for routine QC.
  8. Dong, Michael W.. 2019. "HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists." Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793 [link ↗]
  9. Meyer, Veronika R.. 2010. "Practical High-Performance Liquid Chromatography." Wiley.
  10. Heyden, Yvan Vander, et al.. 2009. "Robustness of pharmaceutical liquid chromatographic methods." Journal of Chromatography B 877: 2120-2129 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.10.052 [link ↗]
📊 分辨率和塔板数计算器（Rs, N, H）

计算一对HPLC峰的分辨率Rs、理论塔板数N和HETP（H）。输入保留时间、峰宽（在50%或基线处）和色谱柱长度。

📚 参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式）
  1. Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-16754-0. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470508183 [link ↗] — Chapter 2 covers resolution, plate count and HETP fundamentals (Snyder et al. 2010).
  2. USP General Chapter <621>. 2024. "Chromatography." USP-NF 2024 ed. United States Pharmacopeial Convention. [link ↗] — Defines Rs >= 1.5 acceptance criterion and N calculation methods.
  3. Dolan, John W.. 2003. "How much resolution is enough?." LCGC North America 21: 350-353 [link ↗] — Practical guidance on Rs targets for routine method development.
  4. Van Deemter, J. J., F. J. Zuiderweg, and A. Klinkenberg. 1956. "Longitudinal diffusion and resistance to mass transfer as causes of nonideality in chromatography." Chemical Engineering Science 5: 271-289 https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(56)80003-1 [link ↗] — Origin of N = 5.54·(tr/w0.5)² half-height plate count formulation.
  5. Giddings, J. Calvin. 1965. "Dynamics of Chromatography, Part I: Principles and Theory." Marcel Dekker. ISBN 978-0-8247-1357-7. — Resolution equation Rs = (1/4)·√N·(α-1)/α·k/(1+k) (master equation).
  6. Foley, Joe P., and John G. Dorsey. 1983. "Equations for calculation of chromatographic figures of merit for ideal and skewed peaks." Analytical Chemistry 55: 730-737 https://doi.org/10.1021/ac00255a033 [link ↗] — Skewed-peak corrections to apparent N.
  7. Knox, John H.. 1977. "Practical aspects of LC theory." Journal of Chromatographic Science 15: 352-364 https://doi.org/10.1093/chromsci/15.9.352 [link ↗]
  8. Carr, Peter W.. 2009. "The new physical chemistry of HPLC." Journal of Chromatography A 1216: 1764-1772 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2008.11.094 [link ↗]
  9. Dong, Michael W.. 2019. "HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists." 2nd ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-119-31378-3. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119313793 [link ↗]
  10. Meyer, Veronika R.. 2010. "Practical High-Performance Liquid Chromatography." 5th ed. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-68218-0.
🧪 系统适用性——实时计算器（USP <621>）

输入5-6次进样的数据（峰面积、保留时间、拖尾因子、塔板数）——计算器将计算%RSD和平均值，并检查是否符合USP <621>。您可以粘贴CSV（逗号分隔）或编辑单个值。

📚 参考文献（芝加哥作者-日期格式）
  1. USP General Chapter <621>. 2024. "Chromatography (System Suitability section)." USP-NF 2024 ed. United States Pharmacopeial Convention. [link ↗] — Defines RSD area < 2%, tailing < 2.0, N > 2000 acceptance criteria.
  2. International Council for Harmonisation (ICH). 2023. "Validation of Analytical Procedures Q2(R2)." ICH Expert Working Group. [link ↗] — Section 5.4 — system suitability is part of method validation.
  3. US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2018. "Reviewer Guidance: Validation of Chromatographic Methods." US Food and Drug Administration. [link ↗] — CDER reviewer perspective on chromatographic validation expectations.
  4. Snyder, Lloyd R., Joseph J. Kirkland, and John W. Dolan. 2010. "Introduction to Modern Liquid Chromatography." 3rd ed. Wiley. — Chapter 2 — system suitability fundamentals (RSD, Tf, N).
  5. Heyden, Yvan Vander, et al.. 2009. "Robustness of pharmaceutical liquid chromatographic methods." — Robustness vs. system suitability — design-of-experiments framework.
  6. Rozet, Eric, et al.. 2013. "Analysis of recent pharmaceutical regulatory documents on analytical method validation."
  7. European Medicines Agency (EMA). 2011. "Guideline on bioanalytical method validation EMEA/CHMP/EWP/192217/2009." EMA. [link ↗] — EMA companion guideline with bioanalytical SS criteria.
  8. Dong, Michael W.. 2019. "HPLC and UHPLC for Practicing Scientists." 2nd ed. Wiley. — UHPLC-specific suitability adjustments (n=5 vs. n=6).
  9. Kazakevich, Yuri V., and Rosario LoBrutto, eds.. 2007. "HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists." Wiley-Interscience.
  10. AOAC International. 2016. "Appendix F: Guidelines for Standard Method Performance Requirements." AOAC INTERNATIONAL. [link ↗] — Alternative SS thresholds for food/dietary samples.
📤 将此分子嵌入您的网站

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🔗 HTML iframe代码 （最简单——随处可用）

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📚 参考文献（综合书目，芝加哥作者-日期格式） 126 条目

以上折叠面板中针对CAS号7727-37-9引用的所有科学来源。格式： 《芝加哥格式手册》第17版，作者-日期系统.

🗄️ 科学数据库

  1. NIST. n.d. NIST Chemistry WebBook: CAS 7727-37-9. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?ID=7727-37-9.
  2. AIST. n.d. Spectral Database for Organic Compounds (SDBS): CAS 7727-37-9. Tsukuba, Japan: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. https://sdbs.db.aist.go.jp/.
  3. Linstrom, Peter J., and William G. Mallard, eds. n.d. NIST Chemistry WebBook: NIST Standard Reference Database Number 69. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://doi.org/10.18434/T4D303.
  4. PubChem. n.d. PubChem Compound Summary: CAS 7727-37-9. Bethesda, MD: National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), National Library of Medicine. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/#query=7727-37-9.
  5. U.S. EPA. n.d. CompTox Chemicals Dashboard: CAS 7727-37-9. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID4036304.

📐 标准/指南

  1. ICH. 2003. "Stability Testing of New Drug Substances and Products: Q1A(R2)." Geneva: International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use. https://database.ich.org/sites/default/files/Q1A%28R2%29%20Guideline.pdf.
  2. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2024. "NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code." NFPA, Quincy, MA. https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=30.
  3. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 2023. "29 CFR 1910.106 — Flammable Liquids." U.S. Department of Labor, Federal Register. https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.106.
  4. European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). 2024. "Annex VI to Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 (CLP) — Harmonised Classification and Labelling." ECHA, Helsinki / Official Journal of the European Union. https://echa.europa.eu/regulations/clp/clp-classification.
  5. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2016. "EN 374-1:2016 — Protective gloves against dangerous chemicals and micro-organisms — Part 1: Terminology and performance requirements for chemical risks." CEN, Brussels. https://standards.cencenelec.eu/dyn/www/f?p=205:110:::::FSP_PROJECT,FSP_ORG_ID:38536,6080&cs=1B0DAA8B85DF42E4A2C70E5D71F0BFA32.
  6. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2001. "EN 166:2001 — Personal eye-protection — Specifications." CEN, Brussels. https://standards.cencenelec.eu/dyn/www/f?p=CEN:110:0::::FSP_PROJECT:6541&cs=1F1A4E0A78C4DB6A28DBE2E8C29D89DCF.
  7. European Committee for Standardization (CEN). 2009. "EN 14605:2005+A1:2009 — Protective clothing against liquid chemicals — Performance requirements for clothing with liquid-tight (Type 3) or spray-tight (Type 4) connections." CEN, Brussels. https://standards.cencenelec.eu/dyn/www/f?p=CEN:110:0::::FSP_PROJECT:21581&cs=1A04A2D3C7CC58E9E6CB58D55F7EBFB7E.
  8. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). 2017. "Recommendations for Chemical Protective Clothing: A Companion to the NIOSH Pocket Guide." U.S. Department of Health & Human Services / CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ncpc/default.html.
  9. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). 2011. "Personal Protective Equipment — General requirements." U.S. Department of Labor — 29 CFR 1910.132. https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.132.

📖 书籍

  1. Hansen, Charles M. 2007. Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User's Handbook, 2nd ed.. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. https://www.routledge.com/Hansen-Solubility-Parameters-A-Users-Handbook/Hansen/p/book/9780849372483.
  2. Barton, Allan F. M. 1991. CRC Handbook of Solubility Parameters and Other Cohesion Parameters: 2nd ed.. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. https://www.routledge.com/CRC-Handbook-of-Solubility-Parameters-and-Other-Cohesion-Parameters/Barton/p/book/9780849301766.
  3. Connors, Kenneth A., Gordon L. Amidon, and Valentino J. Stella. 1986. Chemical Stability of Pharmaceuticals: A Handbook for Pharmacists, 2nd ed.. New York: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471734683.
  4. Rumble, John R., ed. 2019. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 100th Edition. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. https://hbcp.chemnetbase.com/.
  5. Urben, Peter G. 2017. Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, 8th Edition. Academic Press / Elsevier, Oxford. https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780081010594.

📄 科学文章（同行评审）

  1. Stefanis, Emmanuel, and Costas Panayiotou. 2008. "Prediction of Hansen Solubility Parameters with a New Group-Contribution Method." International Journal of Thermophysics 29: 568-585. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10765-008-0415-z.
  2. Stoll, Vincent S., and John S. Blanchard. 1990. "Buffers: Principles and Practice: In Methods in Enzymology, vol. 182." San Diego: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/0076-6879(90)82008-P.

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